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英语专业考研_语言学复习题附答案

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英语专业考研语言学复习题附答案
1ChapterIIntroduction
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:1.Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.2.Linguisticsstudiesparticularlanguage,notlanguagesingeneral.3.Ascientificstudyoflanguageisbasedonwhatthelinguistthinks.
4.Inthestudyoflinguistics,hypothesesformedshouldbebasedonlanguagefactsandcheckedagainsttheobservedfacts.
5.Generallinguisticsisgenerallythestudyoflanguageasawhole.
6.Generallinguistics,whichrelatesitselftotheresearchofotherareas,studiesthebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy.
7.Phoneticsisdifferentfromphonologyinthatthelatterstudiesthecombinationsofthesoundstoconveymeaningincommunication.
8.Morphologystudieshowwordscanbeformedtoproducemeaningfulsentences.9.Thestudyofthewaysinwhichmorphemescanbecombinedtoformwordsiscalledmorphology.
10.Syntaxisdifferentfrommorphologyinthattheformernotonlystudiesthemorphemes,butalsothecombinationofmorphemesintowordsandwordsintosentences.
11.Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageisknownassemantics.12.Bothsemanticsandpragmaticsstudymeanings.
13.Pragmaticsisdifferentfromsemanticsinthatpragmaticsstudiesmeaningnotinisolation,butincontext.
14.Socialchangescanoftenbringaboutlanguagechanges.
15.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtosociety.
16.Modernlinguisticsismostlyprescriptive,butsometimesdescriptive.17.Modernlinguisticsisdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar.
18.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisthedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointintime.
19Modernlinguisticsregardsthewrittenlanguageasprimary,notthewrittenlanguage.
20.ThedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformancewasproposedbyF.deSaussure.
II.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:
21.Chomskydefines“competence”astheidealuser’sk__________oftherulesofhislanguage.
22.Languereferstothea__________linguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunitywhiletheparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandapplicationoftherules.
23.D_________isoneofthedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguagewhichreferstothephenomenonthatlanguageconsistsoftwolevels:alowerlevelofmeaningless
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individualsoundsandahigherlevelofmeaningfulunits.
24.Languageisasystemofa_________vocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
25.Thedisciplinethatstudiestherulesgoverningtheformationofwordsintopermissiblesentencesinlanguagesiscalleds________.
26.Humancapacityforlanguagehasag____basis,butthedetailsoflanguagehavetobetaughtandlearned.
27.P____referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.
28.Findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeappliedtothesettlementofsomepracticalproblems.Thestudyofsuchapplicationsisgenerallyknownasa________linguistics.
29.Languageisp___________inthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Inotherwords,theycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentenceswhichtheyhaveneverheardbefore.
30.Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthes____studyoflanguage.
III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement.
31.Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobe______________.
A.prescriptiveB.analyticC.descriptiveD.linguistic
32.Whichofthefollowingisnotadesignfeatureofhumanlanguage?A.ArbitrarinessB.DisplacementC.DualityD.Meaningfulness
33.Modernlinguisticsregardsthewrittenlanguageas____________.A.primaryB.correctC.secondaryD.stable
34.Inmodernlinguistics,speechisregardedasmorebasicthanwriting,because___________.
A.inlinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting
B.speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.
C.speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongueD.Alloftheabove
35.Ahistoricalstudyoflanguageisa____studyoflanguage.A.synchronicB.diachronicC.prescriptiveD.comparative
36.Saussuretooka(n__________viewoflanguage,whileChomskylooksatlanguagefroma________pointofview.
A.sociological…psychologicalB.psychological…sociologicalC.applied…pragmaticD.semanticandlinguistic
37.AccordingtoF.deSaussure,____referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.
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A.paroleB.performanceC.langueD.Language
38.Languageissaidtobearbitrarybecausethereisnologicalconnectionbetween_________andmeanings.
A.senseB.soundsC.objectsD.ideas
39.Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Thisfeatureiscalled_________,
A.displacementB.dualityC.flexibilityD.culturaltransmission
40.Thedetailsofanylanguagesystemispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthrough____,ratherthanbyinstinct.
A.learningB.teachingC.booksD.bothAandBIV.Definethefollowingterms:
41.Linguistics42.Phonology43.Syntax44.Pragmatics
45.Psycholinguistics46.Language47.Phonetics48.Morphology49.Semantics50.Sociolinguistics51.AppliedLinguistics52.Arbitrariness53Productivity54.Displacement55.Duality56.DesignFeatures57.Competence58Performance59.Langue60Parole
V.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:
61.Languageisgenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Explainitindetail.
62.Whatarethedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguage?Illustratethemwithexamples.63.Howismodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?
64.Howdoyouunderstandthedistinctionbetweenasynchronicstudyandadiachronicstudy?
65.Whydoesmodernlinguisticsregardthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,notthewritten?
66.Whatarethemajordistinctionsbetweenlangueandparole?67.Howdoyouunderstandcompetenceandperformance?
68.Saussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleseemssimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.Whatdoyouthinkaretheirmajordifferences?
69.Doyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary?Why?
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
l.T2.F3.F4.T5.T6.F7.T8.F9.T10.F11.T12.T13.T14.T15.T16.F17.T18.F19.F20.FII.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:
21.knowledge22.abstract23.Duality24.arbitrary
25.syntax26.genetic27.Parole28.applied29.productive30.scientific(orsystematic
III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement.
3l.C32.D33.C34.D35.B36.A37.C38.B39.A40.D
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IV.Definethefollowingterms:
41.Linguistics:Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.42.Phonology:Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.
43.Syntax:Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax..
44.Pragmatics:Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.
45.Psycholinguistics:Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofmindiscalledpsycholinguistics.
46.Language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
47.Phonetics:Thestudyofsoundswhichareusedinlinguisticcommunicationiscalledphonetics.
48.Morphology:Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsiscalledmorphology.
49.Semantics:Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.
50.Sociolinguistics:Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsociolinguistics.
51.Appliedlinguistics:Inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Inabroadsense,itreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticfindingstothesolutionofpracticalproblemssuchastherecoveryofspeechability.
52.Arbitrariness:Itisoneofthedesignfeaturesoflanguage.Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds
53.Productivity:Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossiblethecon-structionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.
54.Displacement:Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker
55.Duality:Thedualitynatureoflanguagemeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.
56.Designfeatures:Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication
57.Competence:Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,
58.Performance:performanceistheactualrealizationoftheknowl-edgeoftherulesinlinguisticcommunication.
59.langue:Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollow;Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently
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60.Parole:Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse;paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules;parolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.
V.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:
61.Languageisgenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Explainitindetail.
Firstofall,languageisasystem,becauseelementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Secondly,languageisarbitrarybecausethereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenformandmeaning,orbetweenthesignandwhatitstandsfor.Differentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectintheworld.Thisfactisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage.Thisalsoexplainsthesymbolicnatureoflanguage:wordsarejustsymbols;theyareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideas,etc.byconvention.Thirdly,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages,nomatterhowwell-developedtheirwritingsystemsare.Theterm"human"inthedefinitionindicatesthatlanguageispossessedbyhumanbeingsonlyandisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsofotherlivingcreatures.Theterm"communication"meansthatlanguagemakesitpossibleforitsuserstotalktoeachotherandfulfilltheircommunicativeneeds.
62.Whatarethedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguage?Illustratethemwithexamples.1Arbitrariness
Asmentionedearlier,thearbitrarypropertyoflanguagemeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Forinstance,thereisnonecessaryrelationshipbetweenthewordelephantandtheanimalitsymbolizes.Inaddition,differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages,andevenwithinthesamelanguage,thesamesounddoesnotrefertothesamething.However,languageisnotentirelyarbitrary.Therearewordswhicharecreatedintheimitationofsoundsbysounds,suchascrash,banginEnglish.Besides,somecompoundwordsarealsonotentirelyarbitrary.Butthenon-arbitrarywordsarequitelimitedinnumber.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguagemakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.2Productivity
Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencesthattheyhaveneversaidorheardbefore.Theycansendmessageswhichnooneelsehaseversentbefore.
Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.Mostanimalcommunicationsystemsappeartobehighlyrestrictedwithrespecttothenumberofdifferentsignalsthattheiruserscansendandreceive.3Duality
Thedualitynatureoflanguagemeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.Atthelowerorthebasiclevel,thereisthestructureofsounds,whicharemeaningless,
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discrete,individualsounds.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbecombinedaccordingtorulesintounitsofmeaningsuchasmorphemesandwords,which,atthehigherlevel,canbearrangedintosentences.Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.Noanimalcommunicationsystemhasdualityorevencomesneartopossessingit.4Displacement
Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Animalcallsaremainlyutteredinresponsetoimmediatechangesofsituation.5Culturaltransmission
Humanbeingswerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,butthedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmittedorpasseddownbyinstinct.Theyhavetobetaughtandlearned,butanimalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.63.Howismodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?
Traditionalgram-marisprescriptive;itisbasedon"high"(religious,literarywrittenlanguage.Itsetsgrammaticalrulesandimposestherulesonlanguageusers.ButModernlinguisticsisdescriptive;Itcollectsauthentic,andmainlyspokenlanguagedataandthenitstudiesanddescribesthedatainanobjectiveandscientificway.
64.Howdoyouunderstandthedistinctionbetweenasynchronicstudyandadiachronicstudy?
ThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisaSynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Asynchronicstudyoflanguagedescribesalanguageasitisatsomeparticularpointintime,whileadiachronicstudyoflanguageisthestudyofthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.
65.Whydoesmodernlinguisticsregardthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,notthewritten?
First,thespokenformispriortothewrit-tenformandmostwritingsystemsarederivedfromthespokenformoflanguage.
Second,thespokenformplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyedanditservesawiderrangeofpurposes
Finally,thespokenformisthemediumthroughwhichweacquireourmothertongue.66.Whatarethemajordistinctionsbetweenlangueandparole?
Thedistinctionbetweenlangue,andparolewasmadebythefamouslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,butparoleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable;itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrom
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persontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.
67.Howdoyouunderstandcompetenceandperformance?
AmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’sproposedthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Thisinternalizedsetofrulesenablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous.AccordingtoChomsky,performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Althoughthespeaker’sknowledgeofhismothertongueisperfect,hisperformancesmayhavemistakesbecauseofsocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress,embarrassment,etc..Chomskybelievesthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence,whichissystematic,nottheperformance,whichistoohaphazard.68.Saussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleseemssimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.Whatdoyouthinkaretheirmajordifferences?
AlthoughSaussure’sdistinctionandChomsky’sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamaterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviesandtohim,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.69.Doyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary?Why?
Languageisarbitraryinnature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary,becausetherearealimitednumberofwordswhoseconnectionsbetweenformsandmeaningscanbelogicallyexplainedtoacertainextent,forexample,theonomatopoeia,wordswhicharecoinedonthebasisofimitationofsoundsbysoundssuchasbang,crash,etc..Takecompoundsforanotherexample.Thetwoelements“photo”and“copy”in“photocopy”arenon-motivated,butthecompoundisnotarbitrary.
Chapter2：Phonology
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
1.VoicingisaphonologicalfeaturethatdistinguishesmeaninginbothChineseandEnglish.
2.Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundsoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.3.Aphoneisaphoneticunitthatdistinguishesmeaning.4.EnglishisatonelanguagewhileChineseisnot.5.Inlinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.
6.Ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.
7.Articulatoryphoneticstriestodescribethephysicalpropertiesofthestreamofsoundswhichaspeakerissueswiththehelpofamachinecalledspectrograph.8.Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantareas:thethroat,themouthandthechest.
9.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalledvoicing.10.Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintermsofplaceofarticulationandthepart
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ofthetonguethatisraisedthehighest.
11.Accordingtothemannerofarticulation,someofthetypesintowhichtheconsonantscanbeclassifiedarestops,fricatives,bilabialandalveolar.
12.Vowelsoundscanbedifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors:thepositionoftongueinthemouth,theopennessofthemouth,theshapeofthelips,andthelengthofthevowels.
13.Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,vowelscanbeclassifiedintoclosevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowelsandopenvowels.14.Anysoundproducedbyahumanbeingisaphoneme.15.Phonesarethesoundsthatcandistinguishmeaning.
16.Phonologyisconcernedwithhowthesoundscanbeclassifiedintodifferentcategories.
17.Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.
18.Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast.
19.Therulesgoverningthephonologicalpatterningarelanguagespecific.
20.Distinctivefeaturesofsoundsegmentscanbefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.
II.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:
21.A____referstoastrongpuffofairstreamintheproductionofspeechsounds.22．A____phoneticsdescribesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.
23.Thefoursounds/p/,/b/,/m/and/w/haveonefeatureincommon,i.e,theyareallb_______sounds.
24．Ofallthespeechorgans,thet____isthemostflexible,andisresponsibleforvarietiesofarticulationthananyother.25．Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintermsofmannerofarticulationorintermsofp____ofarticulation.26．Whentheobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionaudiblyreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledas________.
27．S_________featuresarethephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.Theyincludestress,tone,intonation,etc.
28．Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalleds____rules.
29．Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithletter-symbolsonlyiscalledbroadtranscriptionwhilethetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticsiscalledn_________transcription.
30．Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasi_________.
31．P______isadisciplinewhichstudiesthesystemofsoundsofaparticular
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languageandhowsoundsarecombinedintomeaningfulunitstoeffectlinguisticcommunication.
32．Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantcavities:thepharyngealcavity,theo_______cavityandthenasalcavity.33．T____arepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcordsandwhichcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.34．Dependingonthecontextinwhichstressisconsidered,therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressands_________stress.
III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachofthestatementsbelow.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
35．Ofallthespeechorgans,the_______is/arethemostflexible.A.mouthB.lipsC.tongueD.vocalcords
36．Thesoundsproducedwithoutthevocalcordsvibratingare____sounds.A.voicelessB.voicedC.vowelD.consonantal37．__________isavoicedalveolarstop.
A./z/B./d/C./k/D./b/
38．Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophones____________.A.identicalB.sameC.exactlyalikeD.similar39．Since/p/and/b/arephoneticallysimilar,occurinthesameenvironmentsandtheycandistinguishmeaning,theyaresaidtobe___________.
A.inphonemiccontrastB.incomplementarydistributionC.theallophonesD.minimalpair40．Thesound/f/is_________________.
A.voicedpalatalaffricateB.voicedalveolarstop
C.voicelessvelarfricativeD.voicelesslabiodentalfricative
41.A____vowelisonethatisproducedwiththefrontpartofthetonguemaintainingthehighestposition.
A.backB.centralC.frontD.middle
42.Distinctivefeaturescanbefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalled____________.
A.phoneticcomponentsB.immediateconstituents
C.suprasegmentalfeaturesD.semanticfeatures
43.A(n___________isaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit,acollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.
A.phoneB.soundC.allophoneD.phoneme
44．Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledthe____ofthatphoneme.
A.phonesB.soundsC.phonemesD.allophonesIV.Definethetermsbelow:
45.phonology46.phoneme47.allophone48.internationalphoneticalphabet
49.intonation50.phonetics51.auditoryphonetics
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52.acousticphonetics53.phone54.phonemiccontrast55.tone56.minimalpair
V.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveex-amplesforillustrationifnecessary:
57.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,whydoyouthinkspeechismorebasicthanwriting?
58.Whatarethecriteriathatalinguistusesinclassifyingvowels?59.Whatarethemajordifferencesbetweenphonologyandphonetics?
60.Illustratewithexampleshowsuprasegmentalfeaturescanaffectmeaning.61.Inwhatwaycanwedeterminewhetheraphoneisaphonemeornot?
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
l.T2.F3.F4.F5.T6.T7.F8.F9.T10.F11.F12.T13.F14.F15.F16.F17.T18.F19.T20.T
II.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:
21.Aspiration22.Articulatory23.bilabial24.tongue25.place26.stop27.Suprasegmental28.sequential29.narrow30.intonation31.Phonology32.oral33.Tone34.sentence
III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachofthestatementsbelow.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
35.C36.A37.B38.D39.A40.D41.C42.C43.D44.D
IV.Definethetermsbelow:
45.phonology:Phonologystudiesthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.
46.phoneme:Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue.Butitisanabstractunit.Tobeexact,aphonemeisnotasound;itisacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.
47.allophone:Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.
48.internationalphoneticalphabet:Itisastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.
49.intonation:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.
50.phonetics:Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages
51.auditoryphonetics:Itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer'spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbythehear-er.
52.acousticphonetics:Itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.
53.phone:Phonescanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeaking
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alanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.
54.phonemiccontrast:Phonemiccontrastreferstotherelationbetweentwophonemes.Iftwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentanddistinguishmeaning,theyareinphonemiccontrast.
55.tone:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.
56.minimalpair:Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.
V.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveex-amplesforillustrationifnecessary:
57.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,whydoyouthinkspeechismorebasicthanwriting?
1Inlinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.
2Ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.
3Speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlateratschool.
58.Whatarethecriteriathatalinguistusesinclassifyingvowels?
1Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront,centralandbackintermsofthepositionofthetongueinthemouth.
2Accordingtohowwideourmouthisopened,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels.
3Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,vowelsaredividedintoroundedvowelsandunroundedvowels.
4TheEnglishvowelscanalsobeclassifiedintolongvowelsandshortvowelsaccordingtothelengthofthesound.
59.Whatarethemajordifferencesbetweenphonologyandphonetics?
Theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified.Phonology,ontheotherhand,isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.
60.Illustratewithexampleshowsuprasegmentalfeaturescanaffectmeaning.
1ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,suchas`importandimport.Thesimilaralternationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements.AphonologicalfeatureoftheEnglishcompoundsisthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirstelementandthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress,forexample:`blackbirdisaparticularkindofbird,whichisnotnecessarilyblack,butablack`birdisabirdthatisblack.
2Themoreimportantwordssuchasnouns,verbsadjectives,adverbs,etcare
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pronouncedwithgreaterforceandmademoreprominent.Buttogivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinsentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressedtoachievedifferenteffect.Takethesentence“Heisdrivingmycar.”forexample.Toemphasizethefactthatthecarheisdrivingisnothis,oryours,butmine,thespeakercanstressthepossessivepronounmy,whichundernormalcircumstancesisnotstressed.
3Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones:Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.Generallyspeaking,thefallingtoneindicatesthatwhatissaidisastraight-forward,matter-of-factstatement,therisingtoneoftenmakesaquestionofwhatissaid,andthefall-risetoneoftenindicatesthatthereisanimpliedmessageinwhatissaid.61.Inwhatwaycanwedeterminewhetheraphoneisaphonemeornot?
Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Chapter3：Morphology
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
1.Morphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.
2.Wordsarethesmallestmeaningfulunitsoflanguage.
3.Justasaphonemeisthebasicunitinthestudyofphonology,soisamorphemethebasicunitinthestudyofmorphology.
4.Thesmallestmeaningfulunitsthatcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesarefreemorphemes.
5.Boundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixes.
6.Inflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.
7.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem,whichcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.
8.Prefixesusuallymodifythepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,notthemeaningofit.
9.Therearerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.Therefore,wordsformedaccordingtothemorphologicalrulesareacceptablewords.
10.Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.
II.Fillineachblankbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:11.M____isthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.
12.Theaffix“-ish”inthewordboyishconveysag____meaning.
13.B______morphemesarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.14.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalaffixesandd____affixes.15.D______affixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreatewords.
16.As______isaddedtotheendofstemstomodifythemeaningoftheoriginal
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wordanditmaycasechangeitspartofspeech.
17.C______isthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.
18.Therulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewwordarecalledm____rules.
19.Intermsofmorphemicanalysis,d____canbeviewedastheadditionofaffixestostemstoformnewwords.
20.As____canbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitselftowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.
III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
21.Themorpheme“vision”inthecommonword“television”isa(n______.A.boundmorphemeB.boundformC.inflectionalmorphemeD.freemorpheme
22.Thecompoundword“bookstore”istheplacewherebooksaresold.Thisindicatesthatthemeaningofacompound______.
A.isthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponents
B.canalwaysbeworkedoutbylookingatthemeaningsofmorphemesC.isthesameasthemeaningofafreephrase.D.Noneoftheabove.
23.Thepartofspeechofthecompoundsisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechof_______.
A.thefirstelementB.thesecondelementC.eitherthefirstorthesecondelementD.boththefirstandthesecondelements.
24._______arethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.
A.FreemorphemesB.BoundmorphemesC.BoundwordsD.Words
25._____isabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.
A.SyntaxB.GrammarC.MorphologyD.Morpheme
26.Themeaningcarriedbytheinflectionalmorphemeis_______.
A.lexicalB.morphemicC.grammaticalD.semantic
27.Boundmorphemesarethosethat___________.A.havetobeusedindependently
B.cannotbecombinedwithothermorphemesC.caneitherbefreeorbound
D.havetobecombinedwithothermorphemes.
28.____modifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.
A.PrefixesB.SuffixesC.RootsD.Affixes
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29._____areoftenthoughttobethesmallestmeaningfulunitsoflanguagebythelinguists.
A.WordsB.MorphemesC.PhonemesD.Sentences30.“-s”intheword“books”is_______.
A.aderivativeaffixB.astemC.aninflectionalaffixD.aroot
IV.Definethefollowingterms:
31.morphology32.inflectionalmorphology33.derivationalmorphology
34.morpheme35.freemorpheme36.boundmorpheme37.root38.affix
39.prefix40.suffix41.derivation42.CompoundingV.Answerthefollowingquestions:
43.WhatarethemainfeaturesoftheEnglishcompounds?44.Discussthetypesofmorphemeswithexamples.
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:l.T2.F3.T4.T5.T6.T7.T8.F9.F10.T
II.II.Fillineachblankbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:11.Morpheme12.grammatical13.Bound14.derivative15.Derivative16.suffix17.Compounding18.morphological19.derivation20.stemIII.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
2l.D22.D23.B24.B25.C26.C27.D28.A29.B30.CIV.Definethefollowingterms:
31.Morphology:Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.
32.inflectionalmorphology:Theinflectionalmorphologystudiestheinflections33.derivationalmorphology:Derivationalmorphologyisthestudyofword-formation.
34.Morpheme:Itisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.
35.freemorpheme:Freemorphemesarethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithoth-ermorphemes.
36.boundmorpheme:Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindepen-dentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.
37.Root:Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfal-thoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.
38.Affix:Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalaffixesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategories,whilederivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.
39.Prefix:Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofaword.Prefixesmodifythemeaning
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ofthestem,buttheyusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.40.Suffix:Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestems;theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.
41.Derivation:Derivationisaprocessofwordformationbywhichderivativeaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.
42.Compounding:Compoundingcanbeviewedasthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.V.Anwserthefollowingquestions:
43.WhatarethemainfeaturesoftheEnglishcompounds?
Orthographicallyacompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithoutahypheninbetween.Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalcu-lablefromthemeaningsofallitscomponents.Phonetically,thewordstressofacompoundusuallyfallsonthefirstelement.44.Discussthetypesofmorphemeswithexamples.
Freemorphemes:Theyaretheindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves,forexample,“book-”intheword“bookish”.
Boundmorphemes:Theyarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformawordsuchas“-ish”in“bookish”.Boundmorphemescanbesubdividedintorootsandaffixes.Arootisseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughithasaclearanddefinitemeaning,suchas“gene-”intheword“generate”.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchas“-s”intheword“books”toindicatepluralityofnouns.Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateawordsuchas“mis-”intheword“misinform”.Derivationalaffixescanalsobedividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofawordsuchas“dis-”intheword“dislike”,whilesuffixesoccurattheendofawordsuchas“-less”intheword“friendless”.
Chapter4：Syntax
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
1.Syntaxisasubfiedoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage,includingthecombinationofmorphemesintowords.
2.Grammaticalsentencesareformedfollowingasetofsyntacticrules.
3.Sentencesarecomposedofsequenceofwordsarrangedinasimplelinearorder,withoneaddingontoanotherfollowingasimplearithmeticlogic.
4.Universallyfoundinthegrammarsofallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulesthatcomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeak-erareknownaslinguisticcompetence.
5.Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,butthereisnolimittothenumberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.
6.Inacomplexsentence,thetwoclausesholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingthe
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other.
7.Constituentsthatcanbesubstitutedforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticalitybelongtothesamesyntacticcategory.
8.Minorlexicalcategoriesareopenbecausethesecategoriesarenotfixedandnewmembersareallowedfor.
9.InEnglishsyntacticanalysis,fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,nounphrase,verbphrase,infinitivephrase,andauxiliaryphrase.10.InEnglishthesubjectusuallyprecedestheverbandthedirectobjectusuallyfollowstheverb.
11.Whatisactuallyinternalizedinthemindofanativespeakerisacompletelistofwordsandphrasesratherthangrammaticalknowledge.
12.Anounphrasemustcontainanoun,butotherelementsareoptional.
13.Itisbelievedthatphrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelofD-structure.
14.WH-movementisobligatoryinEnglishwhichchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative.
II.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:
15.As________sentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasub-jectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.
16.As______isastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.
17.As______maybeanounoranounphraseinasentencethatusuallyprecedesthepredicate.
18.Thepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledp_________.
19.Ac_________sentencecontainstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.
20.Inthecomplexsentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledane_______clause.
21.Majorlexicalcategoriesareo___categoriesinthesensethatnewwordsareconstantlyadded.
22.A_____Conditiononcaseassignmentstatesthatacaseassignorandacaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother.
23.P_______aresyntacticoptionsofUGthatallowgeneralprinciplestooperateinonewayoranotherandcontributetosignificantlinguisticvariationsbetweenandamongnaturallanguages.
24.ThetheoryofC____conditionexplainsthefactthatnounphrasesappearonlyinsubjectandobjectpositions.
III.Therearefourgivenchoicesforeachstatementbelow.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
25.Asentenceisconsidered____whenitdoesnotconformtothegrammatical-calknowledgeinthemindofnativespeakers.
A.rightB.wrongC.grammaticalD.ungrammatical
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26.A__________intheembeddedclausereferstotheintroductorywordthatintroducestheembeddedclause.
A.coordinatorB.particleC.prepositionD.subordinator27.Phrasestructureruleshave____properties.
A.recursiveB.grammaticalC.socialD.functional28.Phrasestructurerulesallowustobetterunderstand____________A.howwordsandphrasesformsentences.
B.whatconstitutesthegrammaticalityofstringsofwordsC.howpeopleproduceandrecognizepossiblesentencesD.Alloftheabove.
29.Syntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalled________.A.transformationalrulesB.generativerules
C.phrasestructurerulesD.x-bartheory
30.Thetheoryofcaseconditionaccountsforthefactthat__________.A.nounphrasesappearonlyinsubjectandobjectpositions.B.nounphrasescanbeusedtomodifyanothernounphraseC.nounphrasecanbeusedinadverbialpositions
D.nounphrasecanbemovedtoanyplaceifnecessary.31.Thesentencestructureis________.
A.onlylinearB.OnlyhierarchicalC.complexD.bothlinearandhierarchical32.Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguageare____innumber.A.largeB.smallC.finiteD.infinite
33.The________rulesaretherulesthatgroupwordsandphrasestoformgrammaticalsentences
A.lexicalB.morphologicalC.linguisticD.combinational34._______rulesmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.
A.GenerativeB.TransformationalC.X-barD.PhrasestructureIV.Definethefollowingterms:
35.syntax36.Sentence37.coordinatesentence38.syntacticcategories39.grammaticalrelations40.linguisticcompetence41.transformationalrules42.D-structure
V.Answerthefollowingquestions:
43.Whatarethebasiccomponentsofasentence?
44.Whatarethemajortypesofsentences?Illustratethemwithexamples.45.Aretheelementsinasentencelinearlystructured?Why?
46.Whataretheadvantagesofusingtreediagramsintheanalysisofsentencestructures?
47.WhatisNPmovement.Illustrateitwithexamples.
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
l.F2.T3.F4.T5.T6.T7.T8.F9.F10.T11.F12.T13.T14.T
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II.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:
15.simple,16.sentence17.subject18.predicate19.complex20.embedded21.open22.adjacency23.Parameters24.Case
III.Therearefourgivenchoicesforeachstatementbelow.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
25.D26.D27.A28.D29.A30.A31.D32.C33.D34.BIV.Definethefollowingterms:
35.syntax:Syntaxisasubfieldoflinguistics.Itstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.Itconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.
36.Sentence:Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.Normally,asentenceconsistsofatleastasubjectandapredicatewhichcontainsafiniteverboraverbphrase.
37.coordinatesentence:Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas"and","but","or".
38.syntacticcategories:Apartfromsentencesandclauses,asyntacticcategoryusuallyreferstoaword(calledalexicalcategoryoraphrase(calledaphrasalcategorythatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction.
39.grammaticalrelations:Thestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsofconstituentsarecalledgrammaticalrelations.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachnounphraseinthesentencerelatestotheverb.Inmanycases,grammaticalrelationsinfactrefertowhodoeswhattowhom.
40.linguisticcompetence:Universallyfoundinthegrammarsofallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerknownaslinguisticcompetence.
41.Transformationalrules:Transformationalrulesaretherulesthattransformonesentencetypeintoanothertype.
42.D-structure:D-structureisthelevelofsyntacticrepresentationthatexistsbeforemovementtakesplace.Phrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelofD-structure.V.Answerthefollowingquestions:
43.Whatarethebasiccomponentsofasentence?
Normally,asentenceconsistsofatleastasubjectanditspredicatewhichcontainsafiniteverboraverbphrase.
44.Whatarethemajortypesofsentences?Illustratethemwithexamples.
Traditionally,therearethreemajortypesofsentences.Theyaresimplesentence,coordinate(compoundsentence,andcomplexsentence.Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence,forexample:
Johnreadsextensively.
Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordthatis
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calledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas"and","but","or".Forexample:Johnisreadingalinguisticbook,andMaryispreparingforherhistoryexam.
Acomplexsentencecontainstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.Thetwoclausesinacomplexsentencedonothaveequalstatus,oneissubordinatetotheother.Forexam-ple:
BeforeJohngaveheralecture,Maryshowednointerestinlin-guistics.45.Aretheelementsinasentencelinearlystructured?Why?
No.Languageisbothlinearlyandhierarchicallystructured.Whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence.Acloserexaminationofasentenceshowsthatasentenceisnotcomposedofsequenceofwordsarrangedinasimplelinearorderwithoneaddingontoanotherfollowingasimplearithmeticlogic.Infact,sen-tencesarealsohierarchicallystructured.Theyareorga-nizedbygroupingtogetherwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasnounphrase(NPorverbphrase(VP,ascanbeseenfromthefollowingtreediagram:
S
NPVP
DetNVtNP
DetNTheboylikesthemusic.
46.Whataretheadvantagesofusingtreediagramsintheanalysisofsentencestructures?
Thetreediagramcannotonlyrevealalinearorder,butalsoahierarchicalstructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituents.Itcan,inaddition,showthesyntacticcategoryofeachstructuralconstituent,thusitisbelievedtomosttruthfullyillustratetheconstituentrelationshipamonglinguisticelements.47.WhatisNPmovement.Illustrateitwithexamples.
NPmovementin-volvesthemovementofanounphrase.NP-movementoccurswhen,forexample,asentencechangesfromtheactivevoicetothepassivevoice:(AThemanbeatthechild.
(B.Thechildwasbeatenbytheman.
Bistheresultofthemovementofthenounphrases"theman"and"thechild"fromtheiroriginalpositionsin(Atonewpositions.Thatis,"theman"ispostposedtotherightand"thechild"ispreposedtotheleft.
NotallinstancesofNP-movement,however,arerelatedtochangingasentencefromtheactivevoicetothepassivevoice.Forexample:(CItseemstheyarequitefitforthejob.(DTheyseemquitefitforthejob.
Thesesentencesareidenticalinmeaning,butdifferentintheirsuperfi-cialsyntacticrepresentations.Itisbelievedthattheyhavethesameunderly-ingstructure,but(27bistheresultofanNPmovement.
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Chapter5Semantics
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
1.DialectalsynonymscanoftenbefoundindifferentregionaldialectssuchasBritishEnglishandAmericanEnglishbutcannotbefoundwithinthevarietyitself,forexample,withinBritishEnglishorAmericanEnglish.
2.Senseisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,whilethereferencedealswiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.
3.Linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.
4.Insemantics,meaningoflanguageisconsideredastheintrinsicandinherentrelationtothephysicalworldofexperience.
5.Contextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.
6.Behaviouristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.7.Themeaningofasentenceisthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents.8.Mostlanguageshavesetsoflexicalitemssimilarinmeaningbutrankeddifferentlyaccordingtotheirdegreeofformality.
9.“itishot.”isano-placepredicationbecauseitcontainsnoargument.
10.Ingrammaticalanalysis,thesentenceistakentobethebasicunit,butinsemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitispredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.
II.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:
11.S________canbedefinedasthestudyofmeaning.
12.Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnod______linkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto.
13.R______meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.
14.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalleds________.
15.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,butdifferentinspellingandmeaning,theyarecalledh__________.
16.R_________oppositesarepairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitems.
17.C____analysisisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedividedintomeaningcomponents.
18.Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalleds________restrictions,whichareconstraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.
19.Ana________isalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(sinasentence.
20.Accordingtothen____theoryofmeaning,thewordsinalan-guagearetakento
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belabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.
III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
21.Thenamingtheoryisadvancedby________.
A.PlatoB.BloomfieldC.GeoffreyLeechD.Firth
22.“Weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps.”Thisstatementrepresents_______.
A.theconceptualistviewB.contexutalismC.thenamingtheoryD.behaviourism23.Whichofthefollowingisnottrue?
A.Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.B.Senseisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform.C.Senseisabstractandde-contextualized.
D.Senseistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersarenotinterestedin.24.“CanIborrowyourbike?”_______“Youhaveabike.”
A.issynonymouswithB.isinconsistentwithC.entailsD.presupposes
25.___________isawayinwhichthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.
A.PredicationanalysisB.ComponentialanalysisC.PhonemicanalysisD.Grammaticalanalysis26.“alive”and“dead”are______________.
A.gradableantonymsB.relationaloppositesC.complementaryantonymsD.Noneoftheabove
27._________dealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.
A.ReferenceB.ConceptC.SemanticsD.Sense
28.___________referstothepheno广告网址nthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform.
A.PolysemyB.SynonymyC.HomonymyD.Hyponymy
29.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalled______________.A.homonymsB.polysemyC.hyponymsD.synonyms30.Thegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedby_______.A.grammaticalrulesB.selectionalrestrictionsC.semanticrulesD.semanticfeatures
IV.Definethefollowingterms:
31.semantics32.sense
33.reference34.synonymy
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35.polysemy36.homonymy37.homophones38.Homographs39.completehomonyms40.hyponymy
41.antonymy42componentialanalysis43.grammaticalmeaning44.predication
45.Argument46.predicate47.Two-placepredication
V.Answerthefollowingquestions:
48.Whydowesaythatameaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents?
49.Whatiscomponentialanalysis?Illustrateitwithexamples.
50.Howdoyoudistinguishbetweenentailmentandpresuppositionintermsoftruthvalues?
51.Howdoyouaccountforsuchsenserelationsbetweensentencesassynonymousrelation,inconsistentrelationintermsoftruthvalues?
52.Accordingtothewaysynonymsdiffer,howmanygroupscanweclassifysynonymsinto?Illustratethemwithexamples.
53.Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?Howtheydiffer?
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:l.F2.F3.T4.F5.T6.T7.F8.T9.T10.T
II.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:
11.Semantics12.direct13.Reference14.synonyms15.homophones16.Relational17.Componential18.selectional19.argument20.naming
III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
2l.A22.B23.D24.D25.B26.C27.A28.C29.D30.AIV.Definethefollowingterms:
31.Semantics:Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.32.Sense:Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualised.
33.Reference:Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience
34.Synonymy:Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.35.Polysemy:Polysemyreferstothefactthatthesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.
36.Homonymy:Homonymyreferstothepheno广告网址nthatwordshavingdifferentmean-ingshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.
37.homophones:Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarecalledhomophones
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38.homographs:Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.39.completehomonyms.:Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecalledcompletehomonyms.
40.Hyponymy:Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.
41.Antonymy:Antonymyreferstotherelationofoppositenessofmeaning.
42.Componentialanalysis:Componentialanalysisisawaytoanalyzewordmeaning.Itwaspro-posedbystructuralsemanticists.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofa-wordcanbedividedintomeaningcomponents,whicharecalledsemanticfeatures.
43.Thegrammaticalmeaning:Thegrammaticalmeaningofasentencereferstoitsgrammaticality,i.e.,itsgrammaticalwell-formedness.Thegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage.
44.predica-tion:Thepredica-tionistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.45.ar-gument:Anar-gumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication.Itisgenerallyidenticalwiththenominalelement(sinasentence.
46.predicate:Apredicateissomethingthatissaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.
47.two-placepredication:Atwo-placepredicationisonewhichcon-tainstwoarguments.
V.Answerthefollowingquestions:
48.Whydowesaythatameaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents?
Themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponentsbecauseitcannotbeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitsconstituentwords.Forexample;
(AThedogbittheman.(BThemanbitthedog.
Ifthemeaningofasentencewerethesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents,thentheabovetwosentenceswouldhavethesamemeaning.Infacttheyaredifferentinmeanings.
Asweknow,therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmean-ingandsemanticmeaning.Thegrammaticalmeaningsof“thedog”and“theman”in(Aaredifferentfromthegrammaticalmeaningsof“thedog”and“theman”in(B.Themeaningofasentenceistheproductofbothlexicalandgrammaticalmeaning.Itistheproductofthemeaningoftheconstituentwordsandofthegrammaticalconstructionsthatrelateonewordsyntagmaticallytoanother.49.Whatiscomponentialanalysis?Illustrateitwithexamples.
Componentialanalysis,pro-posedbystructuralsemanticists,isawaytoanalyzewordmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedividedintomeaningcomponents,whicharecalledsemanticfeatures.Plusandminussignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsentinthemeaningofaword,andthesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.
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Forexample,theword“man”isana-lyzedasconsistingofthesemanticfeaturesof[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]
50.Howdoyoudistinguishbetweenentailmentandpresuppositionintermsoftruthvalues?
Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.SupposetherearetwosentencesXandY:X:HehasbeentoFrance.Y:HehasbeentoEurope.
Intermsoftruthvalues,ifXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue,e.g.IfhehasbeentoFrance,hemusthavebeentoEurope.
IfXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse,e.g.IfhehasnotbeentoFrance,hemaystillhavebeentoEuropeorhehasnotbeentoEurope.IfYistrue,Xmaybetrueorfalse,e.g.IfhehasbeentoEurope,hemayormaynothavebeentoFrance.
IfYisfalse,Xisfalse,e.g.IfhehasnotbeentoEurope,hecannothavebeentoFrance.
ThereforeweconcludethatXentailsYorYisanentailmentofX.Thetruthconditionsthatweusetojudgepresuppositionisasfollows:SupposetherearetwosentencesXandYX:John'sbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Johnhasabike.
IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue,e.g.IfJohn'sbikeneedsrepairing,Johnmusthaveabike.IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue,e.g.IfJohn'sbikedoesnotneedrepairing,Johnstillhasabike.IfYistrue,Xiseithertrueorfalse,e.g.IfJohnhasabike,itmayormaynotneedrepairing.IfYisfalse,notruthvaluecanbesaidaboutX,e.g.IfJohndoesnothaveabike,nothingcanbesaidaboutwhetherhisbikeneedsrepairingornot.Therefore,XpresupposesY,orYisapresuppositionofX.
51.Howdoyouaccountforsuchsenserelationsbetweensentencesassynonymousrelation,inconsistentrelationintermsoftruthvalues?
Intermsoftruthcondition,ofthetwosentencesXandY,ifXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse,thereforeXissynonymouswithYe.g.X;Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.
OfthetwosentencesXandY,ifXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue,thenwecansayAisinconsistentwithYe.g.X:Johnismarried.Y:Johnisabachelor.
52.Accordingtothewayssynonymsdiffer,howmanygroupscanweclassifysynonymsinto?Illustratethemwithexamples.
Accordingtothewayssynonymsdiffer,synonymscanbedividedintothefollowinggroups.
i.Dialectalsynonyms
Theyaresynonymswhichareusedindifferentregionaldialects.BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglisharethetwomajorgeographicalvarietiesoftheEnglishlanguage.Forexamples:
BritishEnglishAmericanEnglish
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autumnfallliftelevator
ThendialectalsynonymscanalsobefoundwithinBritish,orAmericanEnglishitself.Forexample,"girl"iscalled"lass"or"lassie"inScottishdialect,and"liquor"iscalled"whisky"inIrishdialect.ii.Stylisticsynonyms
Theyaresynonymswhichdifferinstyleordegreeofformality.Someofthestylisticsynonymstendtobemoreformal,otherstendtobecasual,andstilloth-ersareneutralinstyle.Forexample:
oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparentchap,pal,friend,companion
iii.Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning
Theyarethewordsthathavethesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser.Theemotionsoftheuserindicatetheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout.Forexam-ple,“collaborator”and“accomplice”aresynonymous,sharingthemeaningof"apersonwhohelpsanother",buttheyaredifferentintheirevaluativemeaning.Theformermeansthatapersonwhohelpsanotherindo-ingsomethinggood,whilethelatterreferstoapersonwhohelpsanotherinacriminalact.iv.Collocationalsynonyms
Theyaresynonymswhichdifferintheircollocation.Forexample,wecanuseaccuse,charge,rebuketosaythatsomeonehasdonesomethingwrongorevencriminal,buttheyareusedwithdifferentpreposi-tionsaccuse...of,charge...with,rebuke...for.v.V.Semanticallydifferentsynonyms
Semanticallydifferentsynonymsrefertothesynonymsthatdifferslight-lyinwhattheymean.Forexample,"amaze"and"astound"areverycloseinmeaningtotheword"surprise,"buttheyhaveverysubtledifferencesinmeaning.Whileamazesuggestsconfusionandbewilderment,"astound"impliesdifficultyinbelieving."53.Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?Howdotheydiffer?
Oneoftheoldestwasthenamingtheory,proposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato,whobelievedthatthewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobela-belsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalin-guisticformandwhatitrefersto.Theformandthemeaningarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.Contextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized;thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.
Forexample,themeaningoftheword"seal"inthesentence"Thesealcouldnotbefound"canonlybedeterminedac-cordingtothecontextinwhichthesentenceoccurs:Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thezookeeperbecameworried.(sealmeaninganaquaticmammal
Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thekingbecameworried.(sealmeaningtheking'sstamp
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Behaviorismdrewonbehavioristpsychologywhenhetriedtodefinethemeaningoflinguisticforms.Behavioristsattemptedtode-finethemeaningofalanguageformas"thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer".Chapter6
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
l.F2.F3.T4.T5.F6.F7.F8.F9.F10.T11.T12.FII.Fillineachblankbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:
13.Pragmatics14.semantics15.context16.utterance17.abstract18.Constatives19.Performatives20.locutionary21.illocutionary22.commissive23.expressive24.quantity
III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
25.A26.C27.D28.B29.C30.B31.A32.C33.B34.C35.A36.DIV.Definethetermsbelow:
37.pragmatics:Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.
38.Context:Generallyspeaking,itconsistsoftheknowledgethatissharedbythespeak-erandthehearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesitu-ationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.
39.utterancemeaning:themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.
40.sentencemeaning:Themeaningofasentenceisof-tenconsideredastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.
41.Constative:Constativeswerestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwereverifi-able;
42.Performative:performatives,ontheotherhand,weresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable.Theirfunctionistoperformaparticularspeechact.
43.locutionaryact:Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonol-ogy.44.illocutionaryact:Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.
45.perlocutionaryact:Aperlocutionaryactistheactper-formedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.
46.CooperativePrinciple:ItisprincipleadvancedbyPaulGrice.Itisaprinciplethatguidesourconversationalbehaviours.Thecontentis:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurpose
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orthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.
V.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:
47.Howaresemanticsandpragmaticsdifferentfromeachother?
Traditionalsemanticsstudiedmeaning,butthemeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomethingintrinsic,andinherent,i.e.apropertyattachedtolanguageitself.Therefore,meaningsofwords,meaningsofsentenceswereallstudiedinanisolatedmanner,detachedfromthecontextinwhichtheywereused.Pragmaticsstudiesmeaningnotinisolation,butincontext.Theessentialdistinctionbetweensemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherthecontextofuseisconsideredinthestudyofmean-ing.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.48.Howdoesasentencedifferfromanutterance?
Asentenceisagrammaticalconcept.Itusuallyconsistsofasubjectandpredicate.Anutteranceistheunitofcommunication.Itisthesmallestlinguisticunitthathasacommunicativevalue.Ifweregardasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesanutterance.Whether“Maryisbeautiful.”isasentenceoranutterancede-pendsonhowwelookatit.Ifweregarditasagrammaticalunitoraself-containedunitinisolation,thenitisasentence.Ifwelookatitassomethingutteredinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenitisanutterance.Mostutter-ancestaketheformofcompletesentences,butsomeutterancesarenot,andsomecannotevenberestoredtocompletesentences.49.Howdoesasentencemeaningdifferfromanutterancemeaning?
Asentencemeaningisof-tenconsideredastheintrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.Itisabstractandindependentofcontext.Themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Theutterancemeaningisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.Forexample,“Thereisadogatthedoor”.Thespeakercouldutteritasamatter-of-factstate-ment,tellingthehearerthatthedogisatthedoor.Thespeakercoulduseitasawarning,askingthehearernottoapproachthedoor.Thereareotherpossibilities,too.So,theunderstandingoftheutterancemeaningof“Thereisadogatthedoor”de-pendsonthecontextinwhichitisutteredandthepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersit.
50.Discussindetailthelocutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonol-ogy.Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryactistheactper-formedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.Forexample:Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.
Thelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhathehasutteredallthewords"you,'"have,""door,""left,""open,"etc.andexpressedwhatthewordliterallymean.
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Theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchanutterance,hehasexpressedhisintentionofaskingthehearertoclosethedoor.
Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ifthehearerunderstandsthatthespeakerintendshimtoclosethedoorandclosesthedoor,thespeakerhassuccessfullybroughtaboutthechangeintherealworldhehasintendedto;thentheperlocutioharyactissuccessfullyper-formed.
51.Searleclassifiedillocutionaryactintofivecategories.Discusseachofthemindetailwithexamples.
1representatives:representativesareusedtostate,todescribe,toreport,etc..Theillocutionarypointoftherepresentativesistocommitthespeakertosomething'sbeingthecase,tothetruthofwhathasbeensaid.Forexample:(IswearIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.
(Istatetheearthisaglobe.
2directives:Directivesareattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosome-thing.Inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,or-deringareallspecificinstancesofthisclass.Forexample:Openthewindow!
3commissives:Commissivesarethoseillocutionaryactswhosepointistocommitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofaction.Whenthespeakerisspeaking,heputshimselfunderobligation.Forexample:Ipromisetocome.
Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.
4expressives:Theillocutionarypointofexpressivesistoexpressthepsychologicalstatespecifiedintheutterance.Thespeakerisexpressinghisfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateofaffairs,e.g.apologizing,thanking,congratulating.Forexample:
I'msorryforthemessIhavemade.
5declarations:Declarationshavethecharacteristicthatthesuccessfulperformanceofsuchanactbringsaboutthecorrespondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality.Forexample:
Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.
52.Whatarethefourmaximsunderthecooperativeprinciple?Themaximofquantity
1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.
2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.2.Themaximofquality
1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.
2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.2.ThemaximofrelationBerelevant.
Themaximofmanner
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1.Avoidobscurityofexpression.2.Avoidambiguity.
3.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity.4.Beorderly.
53.Howdoesthefloutingofthemaximsgiverisetoconversationalimplicatures?A:DoyouknowwhereMr.Smithlives?
B:Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.
ThisissaidwhenbothAandBknowthatBdoesknowMr.Smith'saddress.ThusBdoesnotgiveenoughinformationthatisrequired,andhehasfloutedthemaximofquantity.Therefore,suchconversationalimplica-tureas"IdonotwishtotellyouwhereMr.Smithlives"isproduced.
A:Wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?B:I'mafraidI'mnotfeelingsowelltoday.
ThisissaidwhenbothAandBknowthatBisnothavinganyhealthproblemthatwillpreventhimfromgoingtoaparty.ThusBissayingsome-thingthathehimselfknowstobefalseandheisviolatingthemaximofqual-ity.Theconversationalimplicature"Idonotwanttogotoyourpartytonight"isthenproduced.
A:Thehostessisanawfulbore.Don'tyouthink?B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren'tthey?
ThisissaidwhenbothAandBknowthatitisentirelypossibleforBtomakeacommentonthehostess.ThusBissayingsomethingirrelevanttowhatAhasjustsaid,andhehasfloutedthemaximofrelation.Theconver-sationalimplicature"Idon'twishtotalkaboutthehostessinsucharudemanner"isproduced.A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?
B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
ThisissaidwhenbothAandBknowthatBhasnodifficultyinpro-nouncingtheword"ice-cream."ThusBhasfloutedthemaximofmanner.Theconversationalimplicature"Idon’twantthekidstoknowwearetalkingaboutice-cream"isthenproduced.
Chapter7：HistoricalLinguistics
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
1.Oneofthetasksofthehistoricallinguistsistoexploremethodstoreconstructlinguistichistoryandestablishtherelationshipbetweenlanguages.
2.Languagechangeisagradualandconstantprocess,thereforeoftenindiscernibletospeakersofthesamegeneration.
3.ThehistoryoftheEnglishlanguageisdividedintotheperiodsofOldEnglish,MiddleEnglishandModernEnglish.
4.MiddleEnglishbeganwiththearrivalofAnglo-Saxons,whoinvadedtheBritishIslesfromnorthernEurope.
5.InOldEnglish,allthenounsareinflectedtomarknominative,genitive,dativeandaccusativecases.
6.InOldEnglish,theverbofasentenceoftenprecedesthesubjectratherthan
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followsit.
7.AdirectconsequenceoftheRenaissanceMovementwastherevivalofFrenchasaliterarylanguage.
8.Ingeneral,linguisticchangeingrammarismorenoticeablethanthatinthesoundsystemandthevocabularyofalanguage.
9.Thesoundchangesincludechangesinvowelsounds,andintheloss,gainandmovementofsounds.
10.Theleastwidely-spreadmorphologicalchangesinthehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglisharethelossandadditionofaffixes.
11.InOldEnglish,themorphosyntacticruleofadjectiveagreementstipulatedthattheendingsofadjectivemustagreewiththeheadnounincase,numberandgender.
12.ThewordorderofModernEnglishismorevariablethanthatofOldEnglish.13.Derivationreferstotheprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stems,orwords.
14.“Smog”isawordformedbytheword-formingprocesscalledacronymy.15.“fridge”isawordformedbyabbreviation.
16.Modernlinguistsareabletoprovideaconsistentaccountfortheexactcausesofalltypesoflanguagechange.
17.Soundassimilationmaybringaboutthelossofoneoftwophoneticallysimilarsyllablesinsequence,asinthecaseofchangeof“Engla-land”to“England”.18.Ruleelaborationoccurswhenthereisaneedtoreduceambiguityandincreasecommunicativeclarityorexpressiveness.
19.Languagechangeisalwaysachangetowardsthesimplificationoflanguagerules
20.Thewaychildrenacquirethelanguageisoneofthecausesforlanguagechange.
II.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:
21.H________linguisticsisthesubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguagechange.
22.Thehistoricalstudyoflanguageisad________studyoflanguageratherthanasynchronicstudy.
23.EuropeanR________MovementseparatestheperiodofMiddleEnglishfromthatofmodernEnglish.
24.Animportantsetofextensivesoundchanges,whichaffected7longortensevowelsandwhichledtooneofthemajordiscrepanciesbetweenphonemicrepresentationsofwordsandmorphemesattheendoftheMiddleEnglishPeriod,isknownastheGreatV_______Shift.
25.A_______involvesthedeletionofaword-finalvowelsegment.
26.Achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofawordisknownase__________.
27.ThethreesetsofconsonantshiftsthatGrimmdiscoveredbecameknowncollectivelyasGrimmsL____.
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28.Soundchangeasaresultofsoundmovement,knownasm_______,involvesareversalinpositionoftwoadjoiningsoundsegments.
29.B________isaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesupposedsuffixesofexitingwords.
30.Semanticb________referstotheprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomesmoregeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearlierdenotation.
31.Theoriginalformofalanguagefamilythathasceasedtoexistiscalledthep_________.
32.Sounda________referstothephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonanother.Inthisprocess,successivesoundsaremadeidenticalorsimilartooneanotherintermsofplaceormannerofarticulation.
33.Inordertoreducetheexceptionalorirregularmorphemes,speakersofaparticularlanguagemayborrowarulefromonepartofthegrammarandapplyitgenerally.Thispheno广告网址niscalledi_________borrowing.
34.Byidentifyingandcomparingsimilarlinguisticformswithsimilarmeaningsacrossrelatedlanguages,historicallinguistsreconstructtheprotoforminthecommonancestrallanguage.Thisprocessiscalledc________reconstruction.
35.Them____ruleofadjectiveagreementhasbeenlostfromEnglish.
III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
36.Historicallinguisticsexplores________________.A.thenatureoflanguagechangeB.thecausesthatleadtolanguagechangeC.therelationshipbetweenlanguagesD.alloftheabove
37.Languagechangeis______________.
A.universal,continuousand,toalargeextent,regularandsystematicB.continuous,regular,systematic,butnotuniversalC.universal,continuous,butnotregularandsystematic
D.alwaysregularandsystematic,butnotuniversalandcontinuous38.ModernEnglishperiodstartsroughly_____________.A.from449to1100
B.from1500tothepresentC.from1100tothepresentD.from1700tothepresent
39.OldEnglishdatesbacktothemid-fifthcenturywhen_________.
A.theNormanFrenchinvadersunderWilliamtheConquerorarrivedinEnglandB.theprintingtechnologywasinvented
C.Anglo-SaxonsinvadedtheBritishIslesfromnorthernEuropeD.theCelticpeoplebegantoinhabitEngland
40.MiddleEnglishwasdeeplyinfluencedby___________.A.NormanFrenchinvocabularyandgrammar
B.GreekandLatinbecauseoftheEuropeanrenaissancemovement
C.DanishlanguagesbecauseDenmarkplacedakingonthethroneofEngland
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D.theCelticpeoplewhowerethefirstinhabitantsofEngland
41.Languagechangeisessentiallyamatterofchange________.A.incollocationsB.inmeaningC.ingrammarD.inusages
42.InOldandMiddleEnglish,both/k/and/n/intheword“knight”werepronounced,butinmodernEnglish,/k/inthesound/kn-/clusterswasnotpronounced.Thispheno广告网址nisknownas________.A.soundadditionB.soundloss
C.soundshiftD.soundmovement
43.Achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofawordisknownas_____.
A.apocopeB.epenthesisC.parenthesisD.antithesis
44.Segmenttchofsoundpositionscanbeseenintheexampleofthemodernword“bird”whichcomesfromtheoldEnglishword“bridd”.Thechangeofthewordfrom“bridd”to“bird”isacaseof_________.
A.metathesisB.soundlossC.soundadditionD.apocope
45._________isaprocessofcombiningtwoormorewordsintoonelexicalunit.A.DerivationB.BlendingC.CompoundingD.Abbreviation46.“Wife”,whichusedtorefertoanywoman,standsfor“amarriedwoman”inmodernEnglish.Thispheno广告网址nisknownas________.A.semanticshiftB.semanticbroadeningC.semanticelevationD.semanticnarrowing47.Englishlanguagebelongsto_________.
A.Indo-EuropeanFamilyB.Sino-TibetanFamilyC.AustronesianFamilyD.AfroasiaticFamily
48.Byanalogytothepluralformationoftheword“dog-s”,speakersstartedsaying“cows”asthepluralof“cow”insteadoftheearlierplural“kine”.Thisisthecaseof_________.
A.elaborationB.externalborrowingC.soundassimilationD.internalborrowing49.Morphologcialchangescaninvolve__________.A.thelossofmorphologicalrules
B.theadditionofmorphologicalrulesC.thealterationofmorphologicalrulesD.alloftheabove
50.Themostdramaticmorphologicallossconcernsthelossof________.A.comparativemarkersB.tensemarkers
C.genderandcasemarkersD.noneoftheabove
IV.Definethefollowingterms:
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51.Apocope52.Metathesis53.Derivation54.back-formation55.semanticnarrowing56.protolanguage57.haplology58.epenthesis59.Compounding
60.Blending61.semanticbroadening62.semanticshift63.GreatVowelShift64.acronym65.soundassimilationV.Answerthefollowingquestions:
66.Whatisthepurposeorsignificanceofthehistoricalstudyoflanguage?67.Whatarethecharacteristicsofthenatureoflanguagechange?68.WhatarethemajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglish?
69.Aslanguagechangesovertime,themeaningofawordmaydeviatefromitsoriginaldenotation.Discussthemajortypesofsemanticchanges.
70.OvertheyearsfromOldEnglishperiodtotheModernEnglishperiod,Englishhasundergonesomemajorsoundchanges.Illustratethesechangeswithsomeexamples.
71.Whatarethemostwidely-spreadmorphologicalchangesinthehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglish?
72.Whatarethecausesoflanguagechange?Discussthemindetail.
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:l.T2.T3.T4.F5.F6.T7.F8.F9.T10.F11.T12.F13.T14.F15.F16.F17.T18.T19.F20.T
II.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:
21.Historical22.diachronic23.Renaissance24.Vowel25.Apocope26.epenthesis27.Law28.
Metathesis29.Backformation30.broadening31.protolanguage32.assimilation33.internal34.comparative35.morphosyntacticIII.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
36.D37.A38.B39.C40.A41.C42.B43.B44.A45.C46.D47.A48.D49.D50.CIV.Definethefollowingterms:
1.Apocope:Apocopeisthedeletionofaword-finalvowelsegment.
2.Metathesis:Soundchangeasaresultofsoundmovementisknownasmetathesis.Itinvolvesareversalinpositionoftwoneighbouringsoundseg-ments.
3.Derivation:Itisaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stemsorwords.
4.back-formation:Itisaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesupposedsuffixofanexistingword.
5.semanticnarrowing:Semanticnarrowingisaprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbe-comeslessgeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearliermeaning.
6.Protolanguage:Itistheoriginalformofalanguagefamilythathasceasedtoexist.
7.Haplology:Itreferstothepheno广告网址nofthelossofoneoftwo
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phoneticallysimilarsyllablesinsequence.
8.Epenthesis:Achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofawordisknownasepenthesis.
9.Compounding:Itisaprocessofcombiningtwoormorethantwowordsintoonelexicalunit.
10.Blending:Itisaprocessofforminganewwordbycombiningpartsofotherwords.
11.semanticbroadening:Semanticbroadeningreferstotheprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomesmoregeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearlierdenota-tion.
62.semanticshift:Semanticshiftisaprocessofsemanticchangeinwhichawordlosesitsformermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelated,meaning.
63.GreatVowelShift:ItisaseriesofsystematicsoundchangeattheendoftheMiddleEnglishperiodapproximatelybetween1400and1600inthehistoryofEnglishthatinvolvedsevenlongvowelsandconsequentlyledtooneofthemajordiscrepanciesbetweenEnglishpronunciationanditsspellingsystem.
64.Acronym:Anacronymisawordcreatedbycombiningtheinitialsofanumberofwords.
65.soundassimilation:Soundassimilationreferstothephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonan-other.Inanassimilativeprocess,successivesoundsaremadeidentical,ormoresimilar,tooneanotherintermsofplaceormannerofarticulation,orofhaplology.
V.Answerthefollowingquestions:
66.Whatisthepurposeorsignificanceofthehistoricalstudyoflanguage?
1Researchesinhistoricallinguisticsshedlightonprehistoricdevelopmentsintheevolutionoflanguageandtheconnectionsofearlierandlatervariantsofthesamelan-guageandprovidevaluableinsightsintothekinshippatternsofdifferentlanguages.
2Theidentificationofthechangesthataparticularlanguagehasundergoneenablesustoreconstructthelinguistichistoryofthatlanguage,andtherebyhypothesizesitsearlierformsfromwhichcurrentspeechandwritinghaveevolved.3Thehistoricalstudyoflanguagealsoen-ablesthemtodeterminehownon-linguisticfactors,suchassocial,culturalandpsychologicalfactors,interactovertimetocauselinguisticchange.
67.Whatarethecharacteristicsofthenatureoflanguagechange?
Alllivinglanguageschangewithtimeandlanguagechangeisinevitable.Asageneralrule,languagechangeisuniversal,continuousand,toaconsiderablede-gree,regularandsystematic.Languagechangeisextensive,takingplaceinvirtuallyallaspectsofthegrammar.
Althoughlanguagechangeisuniversal,inevitable,andinsomecases,vigorous,itisneveranovernightoccurrence,butagradualandconstantprocess,oftenindiscernibletospeakersofthesamegeneration.
68.WhatarethemajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglish?
ThemajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglishareOldEnglishperiod(roughlyfrom
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449to1100,MiddleEnglishperiod(roughlyfrom1100to1500,andModernEnglishperiod(roughlyfrom1500tothepre-sent.OldEnglishdatesbacktothemid-fifthcenturywhenAnglo-SaxonsinvadedtheBritishIslesfromnorthernEurope.ThepronunciationofOldEnglishisverydifferentfromitsmodemform.Forexample,theOldEnglishword"ham"ispronouncedas/ha:m/.Intermsofmorphology,nearlyhalfofthenounsareinflectedtomarknomi-native,genitive,dative,andaccusativecases.Inaddition,suffixesareaddedtoverbstoindicatetense.Syntactical-ly,theverbofanOldEnglishsentenceprecedes,hutdoesnotfollow,thesubject.
MiddleEnglishbeganwhentheNormanFrenchinvadersinvadedEnglandunderWilliamtheConquerorin1066.MiddleEnglishhadbeendeeplyinfluencedbyNormanFrenchinvocabularyandgrammar.Forexample,suchtermsas"army,""court,""defense,""faith,""prison"and"tax"camefromthelanguageoftheFrenchrulers.
ModernEnglishperiodstartswithEuropeanrenaissancemove-ment.Adi-rectconsequenceoftheRenaissancemovementwastherevivalofLatinasaliterarylanguage.Inthepost-Renaissanceperiod,the"BritishEmpire"setupEnglish-speakingcoloniesinmanypartsoftheworld.Bythenineteenthcentury,Englishwasrecognizedasthelanguageofthegovernment,thelaw,highereducation,andbusinessandcommerceintheUnitedStates,Canada,AustraliaandNewZealand.TodayModernEnglishiswidelyusedandhasinfactbecomeanimportanttoolofinternationalcommunicationamongpeoplesofdifferentcountries.
69.Aslanguagechangesovertime,themeaningofawordmaydeviatefromitsoriginaldenotation.Discussthemajortypesofsemanticchanges.
Majortypesofsemanticchangesaresemanticbroadening,semanticnarrowingandsemanticshift.
Semanticbroadeningreferstotheprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomesmoregeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearlierdenota-tion.Taketheword"holiday"forexample,Theoldermeaningwasa"holyday."Todayeveryoneenjoysaholiday,whetherheorsheisreligiousornot.
Semanticnarrowingisaprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbe-comeslessgeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearliermeaning.Forex-ample,"wife,"usedtomean"anywoman,"butnowitmeans“marriedfe-males”only.
Semanticshiftisaprocessofsemanticchangeinwhichawordlosesitsformermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelated,meaning.Forexample,thewordsillymeant“happy”inOldEnglish,andnaiveinMiddleEnglish,but"foolish"inModernEnglish.
70.OvertheyearsfromOldEnglishperiodtotheModernEnglishperiod,Englishhasundergonesomemajorsoundchanges.Illustratethesechangeswithsomeexamples.
Themajorsoundchangesincludechangesinvowelsounds,andintheloss,gainandmovementofsounds.
ThechangesinvowelsoundscanbeseenintheGreatVowelShiftinthehistoryofEnglish,whichledtooneofthemajordis-agreementsbetweenthepronunciationand
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thespellingsystemofModernEnglish.Thesechangesinvolvesevenlong,ortensevowels,forexampleWords
MiddleEnglishModemEnglishFivefi:vfaivMouseMu:smausFeetfe:tfi:tMoodMdmu:dBreakBrε:kenbreik
Soundsdonotjustchange,theycanbelost.vowelsoundschange,butsomesoundssimplydisappearedfromthegeneralpronunciationofEnglish.Oneexampleofsoundlossisthe/kn-/clustersintheword-initialposition.InOldandMiddleEnglish,both/k/and/n/werepro-nounced,asisshowninthespellingofsuchwordsas"knight"and"knee."AlthoughModernEnglishspellingofthesewordsstillkeepstheinitialletterk,itssoundisnolongerpronounced.
Soundchangescanalsotaketheformofsoundaddition.Soundadditionincludesthegainorinsertionofasound,forexample:spinlespindleemtyempty
Soundchangecantaketheformofsoundmovement.Itinvolvesareversalinpositionoftwoneighbouringsoundseg-ments.Forexample,the/r/soundintheOldEnglishwords"bridd"("bird"and"hros"("horse"wasmovedtotherightofthevowelsoundsintheirModemEnglishcounterparts"bird"and"horse."
71.Whatarethemostwidely-spreadmorphologicalchangesinthehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglish?
Themostwidely-spreadmorphologicalchangesinthehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglisharethelossandadditionofaffixes.AnumberofmorphologicalrulesinOldEnglisharenowlostinModernEnglish.Someoftheserulesareaboutderivationalaffixes,suchassuffixes"-baere"and"-bora".InOldEnglishanadjectivewouldderiveif"-baere"wasaddedtoanoun,suchas:
lust("pleasure"+baerelustbaere("agreeable"ButthisrulehasbeenlostinmodernEnglish.
Themostdramaticmorphologicallossconcernsthelossofgenderandcase
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marking.InOldEnglish,forexample,"st?n"("stone"wasmarkedmasculine,while"gief"("gift"and"d…or"("wildanimal"weremarkedrespectivelyfeminineandneuter.InmodernEnglish,thegendermarkersofthesewordshavebeenlost.
SomeaffixeshavebeenaddedtotheEnglishmorphologicalsystem.Take"-able"forexample,ithasbeenaddedtoEnglishsincetheOldEnglishperiod.Atfirst,wordsendingin"-able,"suchas"favourable"and"conceivable,"wereborrowedaltogetherfromFrench.Thenthissuffixbe-cameaproductiveruleinEnglish.Itwasusedwithotherverbstoformad-jectives.ContemporaryEnglishspeakersapplythissuffixruletomorestems,thusproducingnewadjectivessuchas"payable,"and“washable.”72.Whatarethecausesoflanguagechange?Discussthemindetail.Languagechangesareduetothefollowingcauses:
1Soundassimilation:Soundassimilationreferstothephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonan-other.Inanassimilativeprocess,successivesoundsaremadeidentical,ormoresimilar,tooneanotherintermsofplaceormannerofarticulation,orofhaplology,thelossofoneoftwophoneticallysimilarsyllablesinsequence.Forexample,theOldEnglishword"Engla-land"("thelandoftheAngles"cametobepronounced“England”throughtheassimilationof"la-lasounds.
2Rulesimplificationandregularization:Somechangesaretheresultofsimplificationandregularization.Thepluralformsofborrowedwordsareusuallyirregular,thuscomplex.Forexample,thepluralformsof"agendum","datum","curriculum"and"memorandum"are"agenda","data","curricula"and"mem-oranda".Theirregularpluralsofthesenounshavebeenreplacedbyregularpluralsof"agendas","curriculums",and"memorandums"amongmanyspeakers,thusmakingthemsimplifiedandregularized.
3Internalborrowing:Inordertoreducethenumberofex-ceptionalorirregularmorphemes,speakersofaparticularlanguagemaybor-rowarulefromonepartofthegrammarandapplyitgenerally.Forexam-ple,byanalogytothepluralformationof"foe-s"and"dog-s",speakersstartedsaying"cows"asthepluralof"cow"insteadoftheearlierpluralkine.
4Elaboration:Ruleelaborationoccurswhenthereisaneedtoreduceambiguityandincreasecommunicativeclarityorexpressiveness.Ifaparticulargrammaticalfeatureislostasare-sultofachangeinthephonologicalsystem,someotherfeaturemaybeaddedinanothercomponentofthegrammar.
5Socialtriggers:Socio-politicalchangessuchaswars,invasions,oc-cupation,colonization,andlanguageplanningandstandardiza-tionpoliciesleadtolanguagechanges.Forexample,inthehistoryofEnglish,theNormanConquestmarkedthebeginningoftheMiddleEnglishperiod.AndBritishcolonialsettlement,andthecountry'spolitical,culturalandeconomicadvancesindistantlandssuchasNorthAmerica,Oceania,SouthAfrica,andIndialeadtothechangeofEnglishintoBritish,American,Australian,SouthAfricanandIndianvarieties.
6Culturaltransmission:Althoughanewgenerationhastofindawayofusingthelanguageofthepreviousgeneration,ithastofindexpressionsthatcanbestcommunicatetheviewsandconceptsofthetimeandthechangedandever-changing
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sociallife,andre-createthelanguageofthecommunity.Forexample,whileoldpeopletendtocallarefrigerator"icebox,"theyoungergenerationismoreoftenheardspeakingofa"fridge."Thistenuoustransmissionprocessaddsuptotheinevitableandongoinglanguagechangeandvariation.
7Children'sapproximationtowardtheadultgrammar:Thewaychildrenacquirethelanguageisanotherbasiccauseforlan-guagechange.Childrenusuallyconstructtheirpersonalgrammarsbythemselvesandgeneralizerulesfromthelinguisticinformationtheyhear.Children'sgrammarnevermodelsexactlyafterthatoftheadultspeechcommunity,becausechildrenareexposedtodiverselinguisticinfor-mation.
Alltheabovefactorscontributetolanguagechanges.
Chapter8：Sociolinguistics
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
1.Sociolinguisticsisthesub-disciplineoflinguisticsthatstudiessocialcontexts.2.Languageasameansofsocialcommunicationisahomogeneoussystemwithahomogeneousgroupofspeakers.
3.Languageusevariesfromonespeechcommunitytoanother,fromoneregionalgrouptoanother,fromonesocialgrouptoanother,andevenfromoneindividualtoanother.
4.Thegoalofsociolinguisticsistoexplorethenatureoflanguagevariationandlanguageuseamongavarietyofspeechcommunitiesandindifferentsocialsituations.
5.Thelinguisticmarkersthatcharacterizeindividualsocialgroupsmayserveassocialmarkersofgroupmembership.
6.Fromthesociolinguisticperspective,theterm“speechvariety”cannotbeusedtorefertostandardlanguage,vernacularlanguage,dialectorpidgin.7.Functionalspeechvarietiesareknownasregionaldialects.
8.Themostdistinguishablelinguisticfeatureofaregionaldialectisitsgrammarandusesofvocabulary.
9.Geographicalbarriersaretheonlysourceofregionalvariationoflanguage.
10.Aperson’ssocialbackgroundsdonotexertashapinginfluenceonhischoiceoflinguisticfeatures.
11.Twospeakersofthesamelanguageordialectusetheirlanguageordialectinthesameway.
12.Everyspeakerofalanguageis,inastrictersense,aspeakerofadistinctidiolect.13.Thestandardlanguageisabetterlanguagethannonstandardlanguages.
14.Alinguafrancacanonlybeusedwithinaparticularcountryforcommunicationamonggroupsofpeoplewithdifferentlinguisticbackgrounds.15.Pidginsarelinguisticallyinferiortostandardlanguages.
16.Apidginusuallyreflectstheinfluenceofthehigher,ordominant,languageinitslexiconandthatofthelowerlanguageintheirphonologyandoccasionallysyntax.17.Themajordifferencebetweenapidginandacreoleisthattheformerusuallyhasitsnativespeakerswhilethelatterdoesn’t.
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18.Bilingualismanddiglossiameanthesamething.
19.Thekindofnameortermspeakersusetocallorrefertosomeonemayindicatesomethingoftheirsocialrelationshiptoorpersonalfeelingsaboutthatindividual.20.Theuseofeuphemismshastheeffectofremovingderogatoryovertonesandthedisassociativeeffectassuchisusuallylong-lasting.
II.Fillineachoftheblanksbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:21.Thesocialgroupisolatedforanygivenstudyiscalledthespeechc________.22.Speechv_________referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.
23.Fromthesociolinguisticperspective,aspeechvarietyisnomorethanad__________varietyofalanguage.
24.Languagestandardizationisalsocalledlanguagep_______.
25.Socialvariationgivesrisetos_________whicharesubdivisibleintosmallerspeechcategoriesthatreflecttheirsocioeconomic,educational,occupationalbackground,etc.
26.S_______variationinaperson’sspeechorwritingusuallyrangesonacontinuumfromcasualorcolloquialtoformalorpoliteaccordingtothetypeofcommunicativesituation.
27.Aregionaldialectmaygainstatusandbecomestandardizedasthenationaloro________languageofacountry.
28.Thestandardlanguageisas_________,sociallyprestigiousdialectoflanguage.29.Languagevarietiesotherthanthestandardarecallednonstandard,orv_______languages.
30.Apidgintypicallylacksini_______morphemes.31.Linguistictabooreflectss_________taboo.
32.Theavoidanceofusingtaboolanguagemirrorssocialattitudes,emotionsandvaluejudgmentsandhasnol_________basis.
III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
33._______isconcernedwiththesocialsignificanceoflanguagevariationandlanguageuseindifferentspeechcommunities.
A.PsycholinguisticsB.SociolinguisticsC.HistoricallinguisticsD.Generallinguistics
34.Themostdistinguishablelinguisticfeatureofaregionaldialectisits_____.A.useofwordsB.useofstructuresC.accentD.morphemes
35.____isspeechvariationaccordingtotheparticularareawhereaspeakercomesfrom.
A.RegionalvariationB.LanguagevariationC.SocialvariationD.Registervariation36._______arethemajorsourceofregionalvariationoflanguage.A.Geographicalbarriers
B.Loyaltytoandconfidenceinone’snativespeech
C.Physicaldiscomfortandpsychologicalresistancetochange
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D.Socialbarriers
37._________meansthatcertainauthorities,suchasthegov-ernmentchoose,aparticularspeechvariety,standardizeitandspreadtheuseofitacrossregionalboundaries.
A.LanguageinterferenceB.LanguagechangesC.LanguageplanningD.Languagetransfer
38._________inaperson’sspeechorwritingusuallyrangesonacontinuumfromcasualorcolloquialtoformalorpoliteaccordingtothetypeofcommunicativesituation.
A.RegionalvariationB.ChangesinemotionsC.VariationinconnotationsD.Stylisticvariation
39.A____isavarietyoflanguagethatservesasamediumofcom-municationamonggroupsofpeoplefordiverselinguisticback-grounds.A.linguafrancaB.register
C.CreoleD.nationallanguage
40.Although_______aresimplifiedlanguageswithreducedgrammaticalfeatures,theyarerule-governed,likeanyhumanlanguage.
A.vernacularlanguagesB.creolesC.pidginsD.sociolects
41.Innormalsituations,____speakerstendtousemoreprestigiousformsthantheir____counterpartswiththesamesocialback-ground.
A.female;maleB.male;femaleC.old;youngD.young;old
42.Alinguistic____referstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibit-edbythe"polite"societyfromgeneraluse.
A.slangB.euphemismC.jargonD.tabooIV.Definethefollowingterms:
43.sociolinguistics44.speechcommunity45.speechvariety46.languageplanning47.idiolect48.standardlanguage49.nonstandardlanguage50.linguafranca51.pidgin52.Creole
53.diglossia54.Bilingualism
55.ethnicdialect56.Sociolect57.register58.slang
59.taboo60.euphemism
V.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:
61.Discusswithexamplesthatthespeechofwomenmaydifferfromthespeechofmen.
62.DiscusswithexamplessomeofthelinguisticdifferencesbetweenStandardEnglishandBlackEnglish.
63.Whatisalinguistictaboo?Whateffectdoesithaveonouruseoflanguage?
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I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
l.F2.F3.T4.T5.T6.F7.F8.F9.F10.F11.F12.T13.F14.F15.F16.T17.F18.F19.T20.FII.Fillineachoftheblanksbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:21.community22.variety23.dialectal24.planning25.sociolects26.Stylistic27.official28.superposed29.vernacular30.inflectional31.social32.linguistic
III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
33.B34.C35.A.36.A.37.C38.D39.A40.C41.A42.DIV.Definethefollowingterms:
43.sociolinguistics:Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinsocialcontexts.44.speechcommunity:Thesocialgroupisolatedforanygivenstudyiscalledthespeechcommunityoraspeechcommunityisagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunityandsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyoflanguage.Theimportantcharacteristicofaspeechcommunityisthatthemembersofthegroupmust,insomereasonableway,interactlin-guisticallywithothermembersofthecommunity.Theymaysharecloselyre-latedlanguagevarieties,aswellasattitudestowardlinguisticnorms.
45.speechvariety:Speechvariety,alsoknownaslanguagevariety,referstoanydistin-guishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.Thedis-tinctivecharacteristicsofaspeechvarietymaybelexical,phonological,morphological,syntactic,oracombinationoflinguisticfeatures.
46.languageplanning:languagestandardizationisknownaslan-guageplanning.Thismeansthatcertainauthorities,suchasthegovernmentorgovernmentagencyofacountry,chooseaparticularspeechvarietyandspreadtheuseofit,includingitspronunciationandspellingsystems,acrossregionalboundaries.
47.Idiolect:Anidiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcom-binesaspectsofalltheelementsregardingregional,social,andstylisticvariation,inoneformoranother.Inanarrowersense,whatmakesupone’sidiolectincludesalsosuchfactorsasvoicequality,pitchandspeechrhythm,whichallcontributetotheidentifyingfeaturesinanindividual'sspeech.
48.standardlanguage:Thestandardlanguageisasuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectoflanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,in-cludingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.
49.nonstandardlanguage:Languagevarietiesotherthanthestandardarecallednonstandardlanguages
50.linguafranca:Alinguafrancaisavarietyoflanguagethatservesasamediumofcom-municationamonggroupsofpeoplefordiverselinguisticbackgrounds.
51.pidgin:Apidginisavarietyoflanguagethatisgenerallyusedbynativespeak-ersofotherlanguagesasamediumofcommunication.
52.Creole:ACreolelanguageisoriginallyapidginthathasbecomeestablishedasa
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nativelanguageinsomespeechcommunity.
53.diglossia:Diglossiausuallydescribesasituationinwhichtwoverydifferentvari-etiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachwithadistinctrangeofpurelysocialfunctionandappropriateforcertainsituations.
54.Bilingualism:Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlan-guagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers,suchastheinhabitantsofaparticularregionoranation.
55.ethnicdialect:Withinasociety,speechvariationmaycomeaboutbecauseofdifferentethnicbackgrounds.Anethniclanguagevarietyisaso-cialdialectofalanguage,oftencuttingacrossregionaldifferences.Aneth-nicdialectisspokenmainlybyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperi-encedsomeformofsocialisolation,suchasracialdiscrimina-tionorsegregation.
56.Sociolect:Socialdialects,orsociolects,arevarietiesoflanguageusedbypeoplebelongingtoparticularsocialclasses.
57.register:Registersarelanguagevarietieswhichareappropriateforuseinpartic-ularspeechsituations,incontrasttolanguagevarietiesthatareassociatedwiththesocialorregionalgroupingoftheircustomaryusers.Formatreason,registersarealsoknownassituationaldialects.
58.Slang:Slangisacasualuseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnon-standardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeralcoinagesandfiguresofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneityandsometimesbyraciness.
59.taboo:taboo,orratherlinguistictaboo,denotesanypro-hibitionbythepolitesocietyontheuseofparticularlexicalitemstorefertoobjectsoracts.
60.euphemism:Aeuphemism,then,isamild,indirectorlessof-fensivewordorexpressionsubstitutedwhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmoredirectwordingmightbeharsh,unpleasantlydirect,oroffensive.
V.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:
61.Discusswithexamplesthatthespeechofwomenmaydifferfromthespeechofmen.
Innormalsituations,femalespeakerstendtousemoreprestigiousformsthantheirmalecounterpartswiththesamegeneralsocialbackground.Forexample,standardEnglishformssuchas"Ididit"and"heisn't"canbefoundmoreofteninthespeechoffemales,whilethemorecolloquial"Idoneit"and"heain't"occurmorefrequentlyinthespeechofmales.
Anotherfeatureoftenassociatedwithso-calledwomen'slanguageispoliteness.Usually,toughandroughspeecheshaveconnotationsofmas-culinityandarenotconsideredtobedesirablefemininequalities.Ingener-al,men'slanguageismorestraightforward,lesspolite,andmoredirect,andwomen'slanguageismoreindirect,lessblunt,andmorecircumlocuto-ry.
Thispheno广告网址nofsex-preferentialdifferentiationisalsoreflectedintherelativefrequencywithwhichmalesandfemalesusethesamelexicalitems.Forexample,certainwordsthatarecloselyassociatedwithwomenmaysoundtypicallyfeminineasaresultofthatassociation.Forexample,someEnglishadjectiveslike
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"lovely","nice","darling"and"cute"occurmoreofteninfemalespeechesandthereforecausefeminineassociation.Fe-maleshavealsobeenshowntopossessagreatervarietyofspecificcolortermsthanmales,inspiteofthefactthatmendonotnecessarilypossesslessacutecolorperceptionthanwomen.Ontheotherhand,maleshavethereputationofpossessingalargervocabularyintraditionallymale-dominateddomainssuchassports,huntingandthemilitary.
ArequestinEnglishsuchas"Closethedoorwhenyouleave"canbephrasedinanumberofwaysrangingfromaharshcommandtoaverypoliterequest:
a.Closethedoorwhenyouleave.
b.Pleaseclosethedoorwhenyouleave.
c.Wouldyoupleaseclosethedoorwhenyouleave?d.Couldyouclosethedoorwhenyouleave?
Althoughtheaboveoptionsareallavailabletobothmenandwomen,itisusuallythemorepoliteformsthatareselectedbyfemalespeakers.Ingeneral,femalesarefoundtousemorequestionsthandeclarativestatementsincomparisonwithmales.
62.DiscusswithexamplessomeofthelinguisticdifferencesbetweenStandardEnglishandBlackEnglish.
OneofthemostprominentphonologicalcharacteristicsofBlackEnglishisthefrequentsimplificationofconsonantclustersattheendofwordswhenoneofthetwoconsonantsisanalveolar/t/,/d/,/s/,or/z/.Theapplicationofthissimplificationrulemaydeletethepast-tensemorpheme,so"past"and"passed"arebothpronouncedlike"pass."
AnothersalientcharacteristicofBlackEnglishphonologicalsystemcon-cernsthedeletionofsomeword-finalstopconsonantsinwordslike"side"and"borrowed."SpeakersofBlackEnglishfrequentlydeletetheseword-fi-nalstops,pronouncing“side”like“sigh”and“borrowed”like“borrow.”
Oneprominentsyntacticfeatureisthefrequentabsenceofvariousformsofthecopula"be"inBlackEnglish,whicharerequiredofStandardEng-lish.ComparethefollowingexpressionsinBlackEnglishandStandardEng-lish:(1BlackEnglishStandardEnglishTheymine.They'remine.Youcrazy.Yourecrazy.
AnotherdistinctivesyntacticfeatureofBlackEnglishisthesystematicuseofdieexpression"itis"whereStandardEnglishuses"thereis"inthesenseof“thereexists”:
IsitaMr.Johnsoninthisoffice?
AnotheraspectofBlackEnglishistheuseofdoublenegationconstructions.Whenevertheverbisnegated,theindefinitepronouns"something","some-body",and"some"becomethenegativeindefinites"nothing","nobody",and"none",forexample:
Hedon'tknownothing.(Hedoesn'tknowanything.
63.Whatisalinguistictaboo?Whateffectdoesithaveonouruseoflanguage?
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Alinguistictabooreferstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythe"polite"societyfromgeneraluse.Obscene,profane,andswearwordsarealltaboowordsthataretobeavoidedentirely,oratleastavoidedinmixedcompany.
Insociolinguistics,alinguistictaboo,denotesanypro-hibitionontheuseofparticularlexicalitemstorefertoobjectsoracts.Aslanguageuseiscontextualizedinparticularsocialsettings,linguistictaboooriginatesfromsocialtaboo.Whenanactistaboo,referencetothisactmayalsobecometaboo.Taboowordsandexpressionsreflecttheparticularsocialcustomsandviewsofaparticularculture.
Aslinguistictabooreflectssocialtaboo,certainwordsaremorelikelytobeavoided,forexamples,thewordsrelatedtosex,sexorgansandex-crementinmanycultures.Theavoidanceofusingtaboolanguagemirrorssocialattitudes,emo-tionsandvaluejudgments,andhasnolinguisticbasis.
Theavoidanceofusingtaboolanguagehasledtothecreationofeuphemisms.Aeuphemismisamild,indirectorlessof-fensivewordorexpressionsubstitutedwhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmoredirectwordingmightbeharsh,unpleasantlydirect,oroffensive.Forexam-ple,wesay"portly"insteadof"fat".
Inmanycultures,peopleavoidusingdirectwordsthatpertaintodeathordyingbecauseitisthesubjectthateveryonefearsandisunpleasanttotalkabout.IntheEnglish-speakingworld,forexample,peopledonot“die”,but“passaway”.
Euphemismsinvolveawiderangeoffields.Althoughtheuseofeuphemismshastheeffectofremovingderogatoryovertones,thedisassociativeeffectisneverlong-lasting.Oftenwhenthenegativeconnotationofawordisrecognizedinitseuphemisticform,aneweuphemismwillhavetobesoughtfor.However,anexcessiveuseofeuphemismmayhavenegativeeffects.Asamatteroffact,manyeuphemismshavebecomeclichesthataretobeavoidedinformalspeechandwriting.Theyalsotendtobewordyandtogivewritingatimidquality.Inaddition,euphemismcanbeevasiveorevendeceitful.Becausetheyareoftenimproperlyusedtoobscuretheintendedmeaning,manypeoplefindthemoffensiveandpreferplainlanguage.
Chapter9：Psycholinguistics
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
1.Thelinguisticabilityofhumanbeingsdependsprimarilyonthestructureofthevocalcords.
2.Humanbeingsaretheonlyorganismsinwhichoneparticularpartofthelefthalfofthebrainislargerthanthecorrespondingpartoftherighthalf.
3.ThecaseofPhineasGagesuggeststhatifourlanguageabilityislocatedinthebrain,itisclearthatitisnotsituatedrightatthefront.
4.Ingeneral,therightsideofthebraincontrolsvoluntarymovementsof,andrespondstosignalsfrom,theleftsideofthebody,whereastheleftsidecontrolsvoluntarymovementsof,andrespondstosignalsfrom,therightsideofthebody.5.Languagefunctionsarebelievedtobelateralizedprimarilyinthelefthemisphereofthebrain.
6.Thelanguagewespeakdeterminesthewayweperceivetheworldand
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thereforethenatureofthought.
7.Humanbeingscannotthinkwithoutlanguage,justastheycannotspeakwithoutthinking.
8.Ifalanguagelacksaword,itsspeakerswillnotbeabletograspitsconcept.
9.Generallyspeaking,lefthemisphereisresponsibleforlanguageandspeech,analyticreasoning,associativethought,etc.,whiletherighthemisphereisresponsibleforperceptionofnonlinguisticsounds,holisticreasoning,recognitionofmusicalmelodies,etc.
10.Languagebynomeansdeterminesthewaysweperceivetheobjectiveworld,butbyitsconvenience,availability,andhabitualuse,doesinfluencetheperceptionsofhumanbeing.
II.Fillineachoftheblanksbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:11.P_________isthestudyoflanguageinrelationtothemind.
12.Themostimportantpartofthebrainistheoutsidesurfaceofthebrain,calledthecerebralc_________,whichisthedecision-makingorganofthebody.
13.Thebrainisdividedintotworoughlysymmetricalhalves,calledh_________,oneontherightandoneontheleft.
14.Thelocalizationofcognitiveandperceptualfunctionsinaparticularsideofthebrainiscalledl__________.
15.Brainlateralizationisg__________programmed,buttakestimetodevelop.16.Inadditiontothem________areawhichisresponsibleforphysicalarticulationofutterances,threeareasofthelefthemispherearevitaltolanguage,namely,Broca’sarea,Wernicke’sareaandtheangulargyrus.
17.Therelationshipbetweenthenameandthemeaningofawordisquitea______________.
18.Whenlanguageandthoughtareidenticalorcloselyparalleltoeachother,wemayregardthoughtass________speechandspeechaso__________thought.
19.Becauselanguagesdifferinmanyways,Whorfbelievedthatspeakersofdifferentlanguagesperceiveandexperiencetheworlddifferently,relativetotheirlinguisticbackground.Thisnotioniscalledlinguisticr__________.
20.Thebasicessentialsofthefirstlanguageareacquiredintheshortperiodfromaboutagetwotopuberty,whichiscalledthec____periodforfirstlanguageacquisition.
21.ThestrongversionofSapir-Whorfhypothesishastwoaspects:linguisticd_______andlinguisticrelativism.
III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
22.Humanlinguisticabilitylargelydependsonthestructureanddynamicsof_________.
A.humanbrainB.humanvocalcordsC.humanmemoryD.human
23.Psychologists,neurologistsandlinguistshaveconcludedthat,inadditiontothemotorareawhichisresponsibleforphysicalarticulationofutterances,threeareas
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oftheleftbrainarevitaltolanguage,namely,_______.
A.Broca’sarea,Wernicke’sareaandtheangulargyrusB.Broca’sarea,Wernicke’sareaandcerebralcortexC.Broca’sarea,Wernicke’sareaandneurons
D.Broca’sarea,Wernicke’sareaandExner’sarea
24.The____agefortheacquisitionofthefirstlanguagecoincideswiththeperiodofbrainlateralization.
A.youngestB.flexibleC.optimumD.relevant
25.Linguistic____isthebrain’sneurologicalspecializationforlan-guage.A.fossilizationB.performance
C.competenceD.lateralization
26.Ourlinguisticabilityisa________giftofthespecies’geneprogram.A.chemicalB.physicalC.scientificD.biological
27.________showsthatifourlanguageabilityislocatedinthebrain,itisclearthatitisnotsituatedrightatthefrontofthebrain.
A.ThecaseofGenieB.ThecaseofPhineasGageC.ThecomponentialanalysisD.Thecontrastiveanalysis
28.Themostimportantpartofthebrainistheoutsidesurfaceofthebrain,called_________.
A.theneuronsB.nervepathwaysC.cerebralcortexd.sensoryorgans
29.Accordingtolateralizationtheory,whichofthefollowingisnottheprimaryfunctionofthelefthemisphereofthebrain?
A.analyticreasoningB.temporalorderingC.associativethoughtD.visualandspatialskills
30._______iscommonlyheldtobeanevolutionarypreconditionofthedevelopmentofsuperiorintelligenceaswellasapreconditionoflanguageacquisition.
A.LateralizationB.Maturation
C.BrainseparationD.Memorycapacity
31.Thedichoticlisteningresearchshowsthatthelefthemisphereisnotsuperiorforprocessingallsounds,butonlyforthosethatare________innature.A.non-linguisticB.musicalC.linguisticD.natural
32._______isresponsibleforphysicalarticulationofutterances.A.ThemotorareaB.Broca’sarea
C.Wernicke’sareaD.Theangulargyrus
33.Languagedisorderresultingfromadamageto_________inthebrainrevealsword-findingdifficultiesandproblemswithsyntax.A.themotorareaB.Broca’sarea
C.Wernicke’sareaD.theangulargyrus
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34.In1874,theyoungGermanphysicianCarlWernickepublishedhisdiscoveryinapaperwhichcontributedtothehypothesisthat__________.A.therewasonlyonelanguageareaintheleftbrainB.therewasnolanguageareaintheleftbrainC.therewasonelanguageareaintherightbrain
D.therewasmorethanonelanguageareaintheleftbrain.
35.__________isthelanguagecenterprimarilyresponsibleforconvertingavisualstimulusintoanauditoryformandviceversa.
A.ThemotorareaB.Broca’sarea
C.Wernicke’sareaD.Theangulargyrus
36.TheneurobiologistEricLennebergisamajorproponentoftheideathat________.
A.thereisadistinctionbetweenacquisitionandlearningB.thereisacriticalperiodforlanguageacquisitionC.languageinfluencesthinking
D.thereisinterrelationshipbetweenlanguageandthinking37.ThecaseofGenieshowsthat____________.
A.languagecannotbeacquiredatallafterthecriticalperiod.
B.Cerebralplasticityafterpubertyisstillhighenoughtoforasuccessfulmasteryofanewlanguage.
C.thelanguagefacultyofanaveragehumandegeneratesafterthecriticalperiodD.thelanguagelearningshouldbedoneasearlyaspossible.IVExplainthefollowingterms:
38.psycholinguistics39.brainlateralization40.dichoticlistening41.Broca'sarea
42.angulargyms43.cerebralplasticity44.linguisticdeterminism45.subvocalspeech46.cerebralcortex47.linguisticlateralization48.rightearadvantage49.criticalperiodhypothesis50.Sapir-Whorfhypothesis51.linguisticrelativism
52.overtthought53.intrapersonalcommunication54.interpersonalcommunicationV.Answerthefollowingquestions:
55.Whatarethebiologicalfoundationsoflanguage?
56.Whatarethemajormentalfunctionsunderthecontrolofeachhemi-sphere?57.Whatcanwedobymeansofdichoticlisteningtests?58.WhatisthesafeconclusionfromGenie'scase?59.Howarelanguageandthoughtrelatedtoeachother?
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
1.F2.T3.T4.T5.T6.F7.F8.F9.T10.T
II.II.Fillineachoftheblanksbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:
11.Psycholinguistics12.cortex13.hemispheres14.lateralization
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15.genetically16.Motor17.arbitrary18.sub-vocal,overt19.relativism20.critical21.determinism
III.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:
22.A23.A24.C25.D26.D27.B28.C29.D30.A31.C32.A33.B34.D35.D36.B37.CIVExplainthefollowingterms:
38.Psycholinguistics:Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtothemind.
39.brainlateralization:Thelocalizationofcognitiveandperceptualfunctionsinaparticularhemisphereofthebrainiscalledbrainlateralization.
40.dichoticlistening:aresearchtechniquewhichhasbeenusedtostudyhowthebraincontrolshearingandlanguage,withwhichsubjectswearearphonesandsimultaneouslyreceivedifferentsoundsintherightandleftear,andarethenaskedtorepeatwhattheyhear.Dichoticlisteningresearchmakesuseofthegenerallyestablishedfactthatanythingexperiencedontheright-handsideofthebodyisprocessedinthelefthemisphereofthebrain,andviceversa.Abasicassumption,thus,wouldbethatasignalcomingintherightearwillgotothelefthemisphereandasignalcomingintheleftearwillgototherighthemisphere.
41.Broca'sarea:Itreferstothefrontallobeintheleftcerebralhemisphere,whichisvitaltolanguage.ThisareaisdiscoveredbyPaulBroca,aFrenchsurgeonandanatomist.
42.angulargyms:TheangulargyrusliesbehindWernicke'sarea.Theangulargyrusisthelanguagecenterre-sponsibleforconvertingavisualstimulusintoanauditoryformandvicever-sa.Thisareaiscrucialforthematchingofaspokenformwithaperceivedobject,forthenamingofobjects,andforthecomprehensionofwrittenlan-guage,allofwhichrequireconnectionsbetweenvisualandspeechregions.
43.cerebralplasticity:Ac-cordingtoLenneberg,priortotheendofthecriticalperiod,bothhemispheresareinvolvedtosomeextentinlanguageandonecantakeoveriftheotherisdamaged.Thisneurologicalflexibilityiscalledcerebralplasticity.
44.linguisticdeterminism:atheoryputforwardbytheAmericananthropologicallinguistsSapirandWhorf,whichstatesthatthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedbythestructureoftheirnativelanguage.
45.subvocalspeech:atermusedtorefertothoughtwhenthoughtandlanguageareidenticalorcloselyparalleltoeachother.
46.cerebralcortex:theoutsidesurfaceofthebrainwhichreceivesmessagesfromallthesensoryorgansandwherehumancognitiveabilitiesreside.
47.linguisticlateralization:Itrefersthebrain’sneurologicalspecializationforlanguage.
48.rightearadvantage:Thespeechsignalspresentedintherighteargoesdirectlytotheleftbrain,whilethespeechsignalsintheleftearmustfirstgototherighthemisphere,fromwhereitistransferredtotheleftsideofthebrainforprocessing.Sincethespeechsignalsinthelefteartakesanon-directrouteandalongertimebeforeprocessingthanalinguisticsignalreceivedthroughtherightear,linguistic
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stimuliheardinthelefteararereportedlessaccuratelythanthoseheardintherightear.Thispheno广告网址niscalledtherightearadvantage.
49.criticalperiodhypothesis:Thecriticalperiodhypothesisreferstoaperiodinone'slifeextendingfromaboutagetwotopuberty,duringwhichthehumanbrainismostreadytoacquireaparticularlanguageandlanguagelearningcanproceedeasily,ftly,andwithoutexplicitinstruction.
50.Sapir-Whorfhypothesis:atheoryputforwardbytheAmericananthropologicallinguistsSapirandWhorfwhichstatesthatthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedwhollyorpartlybythestructureoftheirnativelanguage.
51.linguisticrelativism:Whorfbelievedthatspeakersofdifferentlanguagesperceiveandexperiencetheworlddifferently,relativetotheirlinguisticback-ground,hencethenotionoflinguisticrelativism.
52.overtthought:Whenlanguageandthoughtareidenticalorcloselyparalleltoeachother,wemayregardspeechas"overtthought.”
53.intrapersonalcommunication:Itmeansthatlanguageusersuselanguagetofacilitatesthinking,speechbehaviorandactionfortheindividual.
54.interpersonalcommunication:Itmeanslanguageusersuselanguagetoconveyinformation,thoughtsandfeelingsfromonepersontoanother,ortocontroleachother'sbehavior.
V.Answerthefollowingquestions:
55.Whatarethebiologicalfoundationsoflanguage?
Ofallorganisms,humanbeingsaretheonlyspontaneouscre-atorsandusersofhighlysophisticatedlanguagesthatpermitthecommunica-tionofawiderangeofknowledgeandideas.Evidently,ourlinguisticabilitydoesnotdependprimarilyonthestruc-tureofourvocalcords,forothermammalsalsohavevocalcords.Humanlinguisticabilitylargelydepends,instead,onthestructureanddynamicsofthehumanbrain.Asfarasiscurrentlyknown,humanbeingsaretheonlyorganismsinwhichoneparticularpartofthelefthalfofthebrainislargerthanthecorrespondingpartoftherighthalf.Thishasledtothebeliefthathumanlanguageisbiologically,ormoreexactly,neurologically,based.
56.Whatarethemajormentalfunctionsunderthecontrolofeachhemi-sphere?
Psychologicalresearchsuggeststhatbothhemispheresperformimportantmentalfunctionsandtheydifferonlyinthemannerinwhichtheytreatincomingstimuli.Forexample,therighthemisphereprocessesstimulimoreholisticallyandthelefthemispheremoreanalytically.
Brainlateralizationformajormentalfunctionsunderthecontrolofeachhemisphereisgivenasfollows:
(1LefthemisphereRighthemisphere
languageandspeechperceptionofnonlinguisticsoundsanalyticreasoningholisticreasoning
temporalorderingvisualandspatialskillsreadingandwritingrecognitionofpatterns
calculationrecognitionofmusicalmelodiesassociativethought
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Becauseeachcerebralhemispherehasuniquefunctionalsuperiority,itisaccuratetothinkofthehemispheresascomplementarilyspe-cialized.57.Whatcanwedobymeansofdichoticlisteningtests?
Dichoticlisteningresearchmakesuseofthegenerallyestablishedfactthatanythingexperiencedontheright-handsideofthebodyisprocessedinthelefthemisphereofthebrain,andviceversa.Abasicassumption,thus,wouldbethatasignalcomingintherightearwillgotothelefthemisphereandasignalcomingintheleftearwillgototherighthemisphere.Bymeansofdichoticlisteningtests,wecananalyzethecharacteristicsofincomingstimuliprocessedbytheindividualhemispheres.
Dichoticlisteningtestcanshowthatthelefthemisphereisnotsuperiorforprocess-ingallsounds,butonlyforthosethatarelinguisticinnature,thusprovidingevidenceinsupportoftheviewthattheleftsideofthebrainisspecializedforlanguageandthatitiswherelanguagecentersreside.58.WhatisthesafeconclusionfromGenie'scase?
AsafeconclusionfromGenie'scaseisthatthelan-guagefacultyofanaveragehumandegeneratesafterthecriticalperiodandconsequently,mostlinguisticskillscannotdevelop.
59.Howarelanguageandthoughtrelatedtoeachother?
Languageandthoughtmaybeviewedastwoindependentcirclesoverlappinginsomeparts,wherelanguageandthoughtareconsistentwitheachotherandoneneveroccurswithouttheother.Whenlanguageandthoughtareidenticalorcloselyparalleltoeachother,wemayregardthoughtas"subvocalspeech”,andspeechas"overtthought.Insuchacase,speakingandthinkingtakeplacesimultaneously.
Chapter10：LanguageAcquisition
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
1.L1developmentandL2developmentseemtoinvolvethesameprocesses.
2.Thecapacitytoacquireone’sfirstlanguageisafundamentalhumantraitthatallhumanbeingsareequallywellpossessedwith.
3.Allnormalchildrenhaveequalabilitytoacquiretheirfirstlanguage.
4.Childrenfollowasimilaracquisitionscheduleofpredictablestagesalongtherouteoflanguagedevelopmentacrosscultures,thoughthereisanidiosyncraticvariationintheamountoftimethattakesindividualstomasterdifferentaspectsofthegrammar.
5.Humanscanbesaidtobepredisposedandbiologicallyprogrammedtoacquireatleastonelanguage.
6.Somelanguagesareinferior,orsuperior,tootherlanguages.
7.Languageacquisitionisprimarilytheacquisitionofthevocabularyandthemeaningoflanguage.
8.Humanbeingsaregeneticallypredeterminedtoacquirelanguage,thisgeneticpredispositionisasufficientconditionforlanguagedevelopment.
9.Childrenwhogrowupinculturewherecaretakerspeechisabsentacquiretheir
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