(1)Concrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including Canada and the United States, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction.
(1)混凝土和钢筋混凝土在每个国家都被用作建筑材料。在许多国家，包括加拿大和美国，钢筋混凝土是一种主要的工程结构材料。
(2)The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from the wide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction.
(2) 钢筋混凝土建筑的广泛存在是由于钢筋和制造混凝土的材料，包括石子，沙，水泥等，可以通过多种途径方便的得到，同时兴建混凝土建筑时所需要的技术也相对简单。
(3)Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, building of all sorts, underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships.
(3)混凝土和钢筋混凝土被应用于桥梁，各种形式的建筑，地下结构，蓄水池，电视塔，海上石油平台，以及工业建筑，大坝，甚至船舶等。
(4)Reinforce concrete structures consist of a series of individual members that interact to support the loads placed on the structure. The floor of concrete buildings is often built of concrete joist-slab construction.
(4)钢筋混凝土结构由一系列单独构件组成，这些构件通过相互作用共同抵抗施加在结构上的荷载。混凝土建筑的楼层通常采用肋梁楼盖的形式。
(5)A series of parallel ribs or joists support the load from the top slab. The reactions supporting the joists apply load to the beams, which in turn are supported by the columns.
(5)一系列的平行梁肋或次梁抵抗其上楼板传来的荷载，次梁的反力作为荷载施加在主粱上，主粱则支承在柱上。
(6)The slab transfers load laterally to the joists, and serves as the top flange of the joists, which act as T-shaped beams that transmit the load to the beams running at right angles to the joists.
(6)楼板将荷载垂直传递给次梁，并且作为上翼缘和次梁一起形成T形截面梁，将荷载传递给与次梁正交的主粱。
(7)Some floors of have a slab-and-beam design in which the slab spans between beams, which in turn apply loads to the columns.
(7)一些楼层被设计成梁板结构，即楼板直接支承在相邻的主粱上，主粱再将荷载传递到柱上。
(8)Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. As a result, cracks develop whenever loads, or restrained shrinkage or temperature changes, give rise to tensile stresses in excess of the tensile strength of the concrete.
(8)混凝土的抗压能力很强但抗拉能力很弱。因此，当荷载、受约束的收缩或温度变化所引起的拉应力超过其抗拉强度时，混凝土中的裂缝就会开展。
(9)The construction of a reinforced concrete member involves building a form or mould in the shape of the member being built. The form must be strong enough to support the weight and hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete.
(9)钢筋混凝土构件的制作需要一个与构件形状相同的模子，其必须具有足够的强度以抵抗湿混凝土的重量和流动压力。
(10)The reinforcement is placed in this form and held in place during the concreting operation. After the concrete has hardened, the forms are removed.
(10)在混凝土浇注的过程中，钢筋被放置在模子中的固定位置。在混凝土硬化之后，模板才能被移除。
(11)一个结构到底是采用混凝土，钢材，砌体，还是木材进行建造，取决于材料是否容易获得和其他一些经济上的考虑。通常，最先考虑的因素是结构的总造价。
(12)结构的总造价是材料费用，人工费，以及建造过程持续时间的函数。
(13)通常，结构的总造价受到施工时间长短的影响，这是因为承包商和业主必须为施工过程提供资金，而且这些资金一直要到建筑物可以使用后才能得到收益。
(14)兴建钢筋混凝土结构所需要的材料可以很容易的通过多种渠道获得，在施工过程中需要时可以随时制作，与此相反，兴建钢结构时所需要的材料必须向钢材加工厂预定并为此提前支付部分款项。
(15)设计者对设计和制作所采取的任何标准化的措施都可以减少建筑的总造价。例如，可以在不同的楼层布置相同尺寸的柱以节省模板的费用，而不同楼层柱荷载的不同则可以通过改变柱混凝土强度等级或配筋率来考虑。
(16)The occupants of a building may be disturbed if their building oscillates in the wind or the floors vibrate an people walk by. Due to the greater stiffness and mass of a concrete structure, vibrations are seldom a problem.
(17)在混凝土结构的施工过程中，新浇混凝土的重量由模板来承担，这些模板通常支承在下层楼板上。另外，建筑材料经常堆放在楼板或屋面上。
(18)砂子，石子，水泥以及搅拌混凝土的设备可以很方便地通过多种方式获得，并且钢筋比型钢更容易运送到工地。因此，一些偏远的地区经常使用钢筋混凝土。
(19)混凝土的抗拉强度比其抗压强度低得多，因此混凝土会开裂。在结构中，这个问题通过使用钢筋来解决。
(20)与类似的钢结构相比，混凝土结构需要使用更多的材料，重量也更大。因此，大跨度的结构通常使用钢材来建造。
(21)The limit states for reinforced concrete structures can be divided into five basic groups: durability, fire resistance, ultimate limit states, serviceability limit states, and special limit states.
(21)混凝土结构的极限状态包括五个内容：耐久性，耐火性，承载力极限状态，正常使用极限状态，以及特殊极限状态。
(22)Durability means that the structure should withstand environmental exposure without excessive deterioration of the concrete or corrosion of the reinforcement. Fire resistance means the structure must have the resistance required by the applicable provincial building code.
(22)耐久性是指结构能够暴露在环境中而不会发生混凝土材料性能的急剧退化或钢筋的锈蚀。耐火性是指结构必须具有本地区建筑规范所要求的抗火能力。
(23)The ultimate limit states involve a structural collapse of part or all of the structure. Such a limit state should have a very low probability of occurrence since it may lead to loss of life and major financial losses.
(23)承载力极限状态指结构局部倒塌或整体倒塌。因为这种极限状态会造成生命和大量财产的损失，其发生的可能性必须被降到很低。
(24)The ultimate limit states include loss of equilibrium of a part or all of the structure, rupture of critical parts of the structure, progressive collapse, formation of a plastic mechanism, and instability.
(24)承载力极限状态包括结构局部或整体失去平衡，结构关键部位的破坏，渐进式的倒塌，塑性机构形成，以及失稳。
(25)Serviceability limit states involve disruption of the functional use of the structure but not collapse. Since there is less danger of loss of life, a higher probability of occurrence can generally be tolerated.
(25)正常使用界限状态是指结构使用功能受到影响但并不发生倒塌。因为对生命安全的威胁比较小，其发生可以具有稍高的可能性。
(26)Serviceability limit states include excessive deflections for normal service, excessive crack widths, and undesirable vibrations.
(26)正常使用界限状态包括正常使用下结构产生过大的挠度，裂缝宽度过大，以及令人不舒适的振动。
(27)Special limit states involve damage or failure due to abnormal conditions or abnormal loadings. These include structural effects of explosion or vehicular collision, and long-term physical or chemical actions.
(27) 特殊极限状态是指在非正常条件或非正常荷载下发生的结构损坏或失效。这包括由于爆炸或交通工具冲撞导致的结构效应，以及长期的物理或化学作用。
(28)Some sort of safety factors, such as load and resistance factors, are necessary in structural design because the variability in resistance and variability in loadings.
(28）由于抗力和荷载的可变性，一些安全系数，例如荷载系数和抗力系数，对结构设计而言是必须的。
(29)The actual strengths (resistances) of beams, columns, or other structural members will always differ from the values calculated by the designer. And all loads are variable, especially live loads and environmental loads due to snow, wind or earthquake.
(29)梁、柱或其他构件的实际强度（抗力）值总是与设计者计算所得到的值有偏差。并且所有的荷载都是可变的，特别是活载和由雪，风或地震等导致的与环境有关的荷载。
(30)In addition to actual variations in the loads themselves, the assumptions and approximations made in carrying out structural analysis lead to differences between the actual forces and moments and those computed by the designer.
(30)除了荷载本身的变化之外，在结构分析中所使用的假设或近似也使实际的力或力矩与设计者的计算值有偏差。
(31)Loads may be described by their variability with respect to time and location. A permanent load remains roughly constant once the structure is complete. An examples is the self-weight of the structure.
(31)荷载可以根据其是否随时间和位置而变化来描述。永久荷载在结构完工后基本保持恒定。结构的自重就是一个例子。
(32)Variable loads such as occupancy loads and wind loads change from time to time. Variable loads may be sustained loads of long duration, such as weight of filing cabinets in an office.
(32)可变荷载例如使用荷载和风荷载随时间而变化。可变荷载可以是长期作用的荷载，例如办公楼中档案柜的重量。
(33)Creep deformations of concrete structures result from the permanent loads and the sustained portion of the variable loads.
(33)混凝土的徐变变形是由永久荷载和可变荷载中长期作用的部分引起的。
(34)Variable loads may be fixed or free in location. Thus the loading in an office building is free since it can occur at any point in the loaded area. A train load on a bridge is not fixed longitudinally but is fixed laterally by the train.
(34) 可变荷载可以是位置变化的或固定的。可以认为，办公楼的荷载位置是变化的因为其可以作用在受荷区域的任意点。火车对其经过的桥梁的荷载位置在沿着铁轨的方向是变化的，在垂直铁轨的方向则是固定的。
(35)Concrete is a mixture of cement and aggregate, each of which has an linear and brittle stress-strain relationship in compression. Brittle materials tend to develop tensile fractures perpendicular to the direction of the largest tensile strain.
(35) 混凝土是水泥和骨料的拌和物，两者在受压时都具有线性和脆性的应力应变关系。脆性材料的受拉破坏会沿着垂直于最大拉应变的方向发展。
(36)When concrete is subjected to uniaxial compressive loading, cracks tend to develop parallel to the maximum compressive stress.
(36) 当混凝土承受单轴压力时，其裂缝会沿着平行于压应力的方向发展。
(37)Although concrete is made up of elastic, brittle materials, its stress-strain curve is nonlinear and appears to be somewhat ductile. This can be explained by the gradually development of microcracking within the concrete and resulting redistribution of stress.
(37)尽管混凝土是由弹性的脆性材料组成的，但其应力应变关系曲线却是非线性的，并且具有一定的塑性。这可以用混凝土内部微裂缝的逐步发展及其所导致的应力重分布来解释。
(38)Microcracks are internal cracks 2 to 10mm in length. Microcracks that occur along the interface between paste and aggregate are called bond cracks; those that cross the mortar between pieces of aggregate are known as mortar cracks.
(38)微裂缝是指长度为2到10毫米的内部裂缝。在骨料和砂浆的界面上产生的微裂缝称为粘结裂缝；穿越骨料间的砂浆的微裂缝称为砂浆裂缝。
(39)Shrinkage of the paste during hydration and drying of the concrete is restrained by the aggregate. The resulting tensile stresses lead to cracks before the concrete is loaded.
(39)由于混凝土的水化作用和泌水现象所产生的砂浆收缩受到骨料的约束。这种约束所导致的拉应力使裂缝出现在混凝土在受荷之前。
(40)Generally, the term concrete strength is taken to refer to the uniaxial compressive strength as measured by a compression test of a standard test cylinder.
(40)通常，混凝土的强度是指由标准圆柱体试件的抗压试验得到的轴心抗压强度。
(41)Although the tensile strength of concrete increases with an increase in the compressive strength, the ration of tensile stress to compressive stress decreases as the compressive strength increases.
(41) 尽管混凝土的抗拉强度随着其抗压强度的提高而提高，但抗拉强度与抗压强度的比值却随着抗压强度的提高而降低。
(42)The tensile strength is approximately proportional to the square root of the compressive strength. The mean split cylinder strength, ,from a large number of tests of concrete from various localities has been found to be
(42)抗拉强度近似与抗压强度的平方根成比例。各地对混凝土的大量试验表明，圆柱体的平均劈裂强度 为
(43)The tensile strength of concrete is affected by the same factors as the compressive strength. It varies widely depending on the properties of the particular aggregate under consideration.
(43)混凝土抗拉强度受到与其抗压强度相同的影响因素的作用，且随着不同的骨料的特点而变化。
(44)Shear strength and bond strength which are strongly affected by the tensile strength of concrete, tend to develop more quickly than the compressive stength.
(44)明显受到混凝土抗拉强度影响的混凝土抗剪强度和粘结强度，比其抗压强度发展得更快。
(45) 当混凝土在两个互相垂直得方向上受到荷载而在第三个方向上没有应力或对变形的约束时，称为双轴加荷状态。
(45) Concrete is said to be loaded biaxially when it is loaded in two mutually perpendicular directions with essentially no stress or restraint of deformaiton in the third direction.
(46) Under uniaxially compression, failure is initiated by the formation of tensile cracks on planes parallel to the direction of the compressive stresses. These planes are planes of maximum principal tensile strain.
(46) 在单轴加荷时，破坏是由平行于压力作用方向的平面上出现开裂而开始的，这些平面是主拉应变所在的平面。
(47) In the webs of beams, the principal tensile and principal compressive stresses lead to a biaxial tension-compression state of stress.
(47) 在梁的腹板部分，主拉应力和主压应力形成了双向拉压的应力状态。
(48) In a reinforced concrete member with sufficient reinforcement parallel to the tensile stresses, crack does not represent failure of the member because the reinforcement resists the tensile forces after cracking.
(48) 在平行于拉应力的方向上具有足够钢筋的钢筋混凝土构件中，开裂并不表示破坏，因为在开裂后钢筋承担了拉力。
(49) If cracking occurs in reinforced concrete under a biaxial tensile-compressing loading and there is reinforcement across the cracks, the strength and stiffness of the concrete under compression parallel to the cracks is reduced.
(49) 如果钢筋混凝土在双轴拉压受荷使开裂并且有钢筋穿过裂缝，在平行于裂缝方向混凝土的抗压强度和抗压刚度均会降低。
(50) Under triaxial compressive stresses, the mode of failure involves either tensile fracture parallel to the maximum compressive stress, or a shearing mode of failure.
(50)在三轴受压时，混凝土的破坏模式包括平行于最大压应力方向的拉坏和剪切破坏模式。
(51) Most concrete structures can be subdivided into beams and slabs subjected primarily to flexure, and columns subjected to axial compression accompanied in most cases by flexure.
(51) 大部分的混凝土结构可以分为主要发生弯曲变形的梁和板，以及受到轴向压缩的柱，柱通常还同时发生弯曲变形。
(52)Through most of the length of the beam or column, a straight-line distribution of strains will exist and normal flexure theory can be applied. Adjacent to concentrate loads, holes, or changes in cross section, the strain distribution is nonlinear.
(52)在沿着梁或柱长度方向的大部分区域，应变都是直线分布的，普通的弯曲理论可以应用。在集中荷载，孔洞，或截面变化的部位附近，应变的分布是非线性的。
(53)Analysis is easier than design because all the decisions concerning reinforcement, beam size, and so on, have been made and it is only necessary to apply the strength calculation principles to determine the capacity.
(53)分析比设计简单，因为钢筋、梁的尺寸以及其他因素都已经确定，只需要应用强度计算的基本原理去确定承载力就可以了。
(54)Design involves the choice of beam sizes, material strengths, and reinforcement to produce a cross section that can resist the loads.
(54)设计过程包括选择梁的尺寸，材料强度，和钢筋以形成一个可以抵抗荷载的截面
(55)A moment that causes compression on the top surface of a beam and tension on the bottom surface will be called a positive moment. Bending moment diagram will be plotted on the compression side of the member.
(55)使梁的顶面受压底面受拉的弯矩称为正弯矩。弯矩图画在构件的受 压边
(56) A beam is a structural member that supports applied loads and its own weight primarily be internal moments and shears. An any section of the beam, the internal moment is necessary to equilibrate the bending moment.
(56) 梁是通过其内部的弯矩和剪力来抵抗荷载及其自重的构件。在梁的任意截面，内部的弯矩都必须与外部弯矩平衡。
(57) The internal moment results from an internal compressive force and an internal tensile force, separated by a lever arm.
(57) 内部弯矩是由内部的一个压力和一个拉力产生的，两者间的距离称为力臂。
(58) When the stress at the bottom of the beam reached the tensile strength of the concrete, crack occurred. After cracking, the tensile force in the concrete is transferred to the steel.
(58) 当底部的应力超过混凝土的抗拉强度时，梁就会开裂。在开裂之后，混凝土中的拉力将传递到钢筋上。
(59) Although concrete itself is not a very ductile material, a reinforced concrete beam can exhibit large ductility.
(59) 尽管混凝土本身并不是塑性材料，但钢筋混凝土梁却表现出很大延性。
(60) The relationship between concrete stress and concrete strain may be based on the stress strain curves or assumed to be any shape that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with the results of the standard compressive tests.
(60)混凝土的应力和应变间的关系可以基于应力应变曲线确定，或者假定为任何形式，但该形式所确定的强度值应该很好地符合标准受压试验得到的强度值。
(61)Because a shear failure is frequently sudden and brittle, the design for shear must ensure that the shear strength exceeds the flexural strength of the beam.
(61)因为剪切破坏常常是突然和脆性的，所以抗剪设计必须保证梁的抗剪强度大于其抗弯强度。
(62)The manner in which a shear failure can occur varies widely depending on the dimensions, geometry, loading, and properties of the member.
(62)剪切破坏发生的方式由于尺寸、几何形状、受荷方式及构件的特点等的不同而变化。
(63)Shear cracks develop due to principal tensile stresses exceed the tensile strength of the concrete. The most convenient way to determined the principal stresses is to use a Mohr’s circle for stress.
(63)剪切裂缝的发展是因为主拉应力超过了混凝土的抗拉强度。计算主应力最方便的方法是使用莫尔应力圆。
(64)Mohr’s circles for stress and strain are used to determined the stresses and strains in an uncracked elastic beam.
(64)未开裂的弹性梁上的应力和应变可以使用莫尔应力圆和莫尔应变圆来确定。
(65)It should be noted that equal shearing stresses exist on both horizontal and vertical plans through the element. The horizontal shearing stresses are important in the design of some special cases.
(65)应该注意到在通过单元的水平面和竖直面上存在着相等的剪应力。水平面上的剪应力在一些特殊情况的设计中很重要。
(66)In reinforced concrete beams, flexural cracks generally occur before the principal tensile stresses at the midheight become critical. Once such a crack has occurred, the tensile stress across the crack drops to zero.
(66)在钢筋混凝土梁中，弯曲裂缝通常在梁中部的主拉应力变得足够大以前就出现了。一旦这样的裂缝出现，与裂缝相交的主拉应力就降低为零。
(67)The onset of a inclined cracking in a beam cannot be predict from the principal stresses unless shearing cracking precedes flexural cracking. This very rarely happens in reinforced concrete but does occur in some prestressed beams.
(67)斜向开裂何时发生是不能通过主拉应力来预测的，除非剪切开裂发生在弯曲开裂以前，这种情况在钢筋混凝土中极少出现，但在预应力混凝土中确实会出现。
(68)In most reinforced concrete beams, flexure cracks occur first and extend more or less vertically into the beam. These alter the state of stress in the beam causing a stress concentration near the head of the crack.
(68)在大多数的钢筋混凝土梁中，弯曲裂缝首先出现并且大致垂直地向梁内部发展。这改变了梁内部的应力状态，也在裂缝的端部引起应力集中。
(69)Flexural-shearing cracking cannot be predicted by calculating the principal stresses in an uncracked beam. For this reason, empirical equations have been derived to calculate the flexural-shear cracking load.
(69)在一根未开裂的梁中，弯剪共同作用下的开裂不能通过计算主应力来预测。因此，一些用来计算弯剪作用下开裂荷载的经验公式已经建立起来了。
(70)Due to inclined cracking, the strength of beams drops below the flexural capacity. The purpose of web reinforcement is to ensure that the full flexural capacity can be developed.
(70)由于斜向的开裂，梁的强度降到了其抗弯强度以下。配置腹筋的作用就是使梁的抗弯强度能够充分发挥。
(71)In practice, two-way slabs take various forms. For relatively light loads, as experienced in apartments or similar buildings, flat plates are used. Such a slab is simply a slab of uniform thickness supported on the columns.
(72)For heavy industrial loads, the flat slab system may be used. The load transfer to the column is accomplished by thickening the slab near the column using drop panels, or by flaring the top of the column to form a column capital.
(73)开裂之前，双向板是一种弹性板，在短期荷载作用下，其变形、应力和应变都可以通过弹性分析预先确定。
(74)开裂之后钢筋屈服之前，因为开裂区域与未开裂区域相比具有较低的抗弯刚度板不再是等刚度的， 。
(75)Yielding of reinforcement starts in one or more regions of high moment and spreads through the slab as moments are redistributed from yielded regions to areas that are still elastic.
(76) 当荷载大小超过使用荷载时， 弹性分析开始失去准确性，并且在钢筋屈服后还会发生弯矩重分布。
(77) 发生受弯破坏的板具有延性。板特别是平板楼盖也可能发生剪切破坏，剪切破坏具有脆性的性质。
(78) 双向板通常发生很大的挠度，引起板的下垂和隔墙、门和窗的破坏。
(79) Drop panels are usually used adjacent to each column for deflection control, extra shear strength, and extra flexural strength.
(80) In a flat plate or flat slab, the stiffness portions of the slab are those running from column to column along the four sides. As a result, the moments are largest in these parts of the slab.
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