Chapter 1 Language语言
1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
2. Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language.
3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning.
4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.
5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.
6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users.
7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure.
8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.
9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.
1. ★What is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.
First, language is a system.
Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.
The third feature of language is symbolic nature.
2. ★What are the design features of language?
Language has seven design features as following:
1) Productivity.
2) Discreteness.
3) Displacement
4) Arbitrariness.
5) Cultural transmission
6) Duality of structure.
7) Interchangeability.
3. Why do we say language is a system?
Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.
4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language?
I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:
1) Instrumental function. 工具功能
2) Regulatory function. 调节功能
3) Representational function. 表现功能
4) Interactional function. 互动功能
5) Personal function. 自指性功能
6) Heuristic function. 启发功能 [osbQtq`kf`h]
7) Imaginative function. 想象功能
II. Adult language has three functional components as following:
1) Interpersonal components. 人际
2) Ideational components.概念
3) Textual components.语篇
Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学
1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.
2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.
3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.
4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics (微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.
5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.
6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.
7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.
8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.
9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation (横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.
10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication (言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.
1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?
According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:
1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.
2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.
3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.
4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.
2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.
1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.
2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.
3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.
3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?
Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:
1) Phonetics. 语音学 is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.
2) Phonology. 音位学 studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.
3) Morphology. 形态学 studies about how a word is formed.
4) Syntax. 句法学 studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.
5) Semantics. 语义学 studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.
6) Pragmatics. 语用学
★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.
★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.
Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学
1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.
2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.
3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.
4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.
5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.
6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p] [b] [m] [w]
7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [tX] [dY] [tr] [dr]
8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.
9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]
10. diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][Oi] [Qu][au]
11. triphthongs (三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly and continuously to a third one. [eiQ][aiQ][OiQ] [QuQ][auQ]
12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.
1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?
The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.
1) The position of the soft palate.
2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.
3) The place of articulation.
4) The manner of articulation.
2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?
Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.
1) The state of the velum
2) The position of the tongue.
3) The openness of the mouth.
4) The shape of the lips.
5) The length of the vowels.
6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.
3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?
Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:
1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.
2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.
3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.
4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?
I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:
1) Voiced.
2) Nasal.
3) Consonantal.
4) Vocalic.
5) Continuant.
6) Anterior.
7) Coronal.
8) Aspirated.
II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:
1) High.
2) Low.
3) Front.
4) Back.
5) Rounded.
6) Tense.
Chapter 4 Phonology 音位学
1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.
2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.
3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.
4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.
5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.
6. complementary distribution (互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be in complementary distribution.
7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.
8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.
9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.
10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.
11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.
12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.
1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?
1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.
2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.
2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.
When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.
3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?
A minimal pair should meet three conditions:
1) The two forms are different in meaning.
2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.
3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.
4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.
1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in a change of meaning.
2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because the former occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.
3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/ can be said to be in free variation.
5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?
I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.
2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.
3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.
II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.
6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?
Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level
7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?
The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.
Chapter 5 Morphology 形态学
1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.
allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.
morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.
2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.
affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.
free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.
bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.
3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.
derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.
4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.
zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.
5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.
6. immediate constituents (直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.
ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.
7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.
8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.
1. ★What is IC Analysis?
IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.
2. How are morphemes classified?
1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.
2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.
3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.
a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.
b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.
4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph?
a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.
b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.
5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.
a) Functionally:
i. Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.
ii. Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.
b) In term of position:
i. Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.
ii. Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.
6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.
The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.
For example:
a) un- + adj. ->adj.
b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.
c) V. + -able -> adj.
d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.
Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学
1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.
paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.
hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.
2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.
labeled IC Analysis (标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.
phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.
labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.
3. constituency (成分关系)
dependency (依存关系)
4. surface structures (表层结构) refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformational rules.
deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures.
5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则) are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentence down into its constituent parts.
6. transformational rules (转换规则)
7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)
1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?
They are different from each other in four aspects:
1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful grouping of sentences.
2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.
3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.
4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.
2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.
1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.
2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.
3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we start with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are they generated?
To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.
Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).
4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?
Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.
5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.
1) Syntagmatic relations
2) Paradigmatic relations.
3) Hierarchical relations.
Chapter 7 Semantics 语义学
1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.
2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.
3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.
4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.
5. Denotation (外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.
6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.
7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.
8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.
9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.
11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.
12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)
13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.
14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.
15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.
1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?
In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.
According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.
2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?
1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.
3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?
4. What are the sense relations between sentences?
1) S1 is synonymous with S2.
2) S1 entails S2.
3) S1 contradicts S2.
4) S1 presupposes S2.
5) S1 is a tautology, and therefore invariably true.
6) S1 is a contradiction, and therefore invariably false.
7) S1 is semantically anomalous.
Chapter 8 Pragmatics 语用学
1. Speech act theory (言语行为理论)
2. Cooperative principle and its maxims (合作原则及其准则)
3. Politeness principle and its maxims (礼貌原则及其准则)
4. Conversational implicature (会话含义)
5. Indirect speech act (间接言语行为)
6. Pragmatic presupposition (语用学预设)
7. Relevance theory (关联理论)
8. Illocutionary act (言外行为)
9. (Horn’s) Q-Principle and R-Principle
10. Perfrmative verbs (施为句动词)
1. Make comments on the different definitions of pragmatics.
2. What are the main types of deixis?
3. Explain the statement: context is so indispensable in fully understanding interpreting the speaker’s meaning.
4. How are Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theories related to each other?
5. What’s the relationship between CP and PP?
6. What do you know about presupposition triggers in English? Explain them briefly with examples.
7. What is ostensive-referential communication?
8. Explain the obvious presupposition of speaker who say each of the following:
1) When did you stop beating your wife?
2) Where did Tom buy the watch?
3) Your car is broken.
9. What do you think of the following statement? “Tom participated in spreading rumors” entails “Tom engaged in spreading rumors”.
Chapter 9 话语分析
1. text (语篇) = discourse 语篇是指实际使用的语言单位，是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。它可以是对话，也可以是独白，它包括书面语，也包括口语
2. discourse (话语) Discourse is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length.
3. context (语境) Linguistic context refers to the language that surrounds or accompanies the piece of utterance or discourse in question.
4. pre-sequences Pre-sequence refers to the kind of sequences that are used to set up some specific potential actions.
5. adjacency pairs (毗邻对) An adjacency pair is a unit of conversation that contains an exchange of one turn each by two speakers.
6. turn-taking (话轮转换) Turn-taking refers to the way in which participants of a conversation take turns at speaking.
7. reference (所指) Reference signals to the reader what kind of information is to be retrieved.
8. substitution (替代) Substitution means using another word to take the place of the thing that is being discussed.
9. ellipsis (省略) Ellipsis is the absence of specific information in the text, such omission can be understood from preceding information in the text.
10. conjunction (连词) a conjunction is a part of speech that connects two words, phrases or clauses together.
11. reiteration (复现) Reiteration is the repetition of a lexical item in the context of reference.
12. collocation (搭配) Collocation is the lexical cohesion that is achieved through the association of lexical items that regularly co-occur.
1. What is the relationship between discourse analysis and conversational analysis?
会话分析的目的是分析一次自然会话的语言学特征和会话在日常生活中的用途；
而语篇分析是对口头语和书面语中的句子是如何形成较大的意义单位，如段落、会话等的研究。
2. How does critical discourse analysis differ from positive discourse analysis?
1) The purpose of CDA is to disclose the ideology hidden in any public discourse and its influence on discourse as well as the counteractive influence the discourse exerts on ideology. One crucial difference is that CDA aims to provide a critical dimension in its theoretical and descriptive accounts of texts.
2) The aim of PDA is to make the critical thinking develop more hopeful discourses: peace, reconciliation, learning and alteration.
3. What’s the difference between cohesion and coherence?
1) Cohesion is the means whereby elements that are structurally unrelated to one another are linked together, through the dependence of one on the other for its interpretation.
2) Coherence means natural or reasonable connection. In language communication, it refers to a logical, orderly and aesthetical relationship between parts, in speech, writing, or argument.
4. Explain the difference between preferred second parts and dispreferred second parts.
1) The preferred second parts are more usual, more normal and less specific.
2) Dispreferred second parts have much in common. They contain more material than preferred second parts. They often have elements of delay, elements of apolpgy, and element of appreciation and an element of explanation.
5. What do you know about critical discourse analysis and positive discourse analysis? Write a short essay to illustrate them respectively.
1)“批评话语分析”是20世纪70年代末首先在英国兴起的有关话语分析方法的学科。它通过分析语篇的语言特点和它们生成的社会历史背景来考察语言结构背后的意识形态意义，并进而揭示语言、权力和意识形态之间复杂的关系。批评话语分析认为语篇是说话者在形态结构和意识形态意义两方面进行选择的结果；它的方法论主要建立在以Halliday为代表的系统功能语言学上，但也不排斥其他语言理论中有关的概念与方法。它在分析中特别强调对语篇生成、传播和接受的生活语境和社会历史背景的考察，并把注意力主要放在发现和分析语篇中那些人们习以为常因此往往被忽视的思想观念上，以便人们对它们进行重新审视。
2) “积极性话语分析”主张话语分析应该采取积极友好的态度。这种积极友好不仅适用于自己和自己一方的人，而且适用于自己的对立一方。其目标在于通过这样的分析，朝“和平语言学”的目标努力，最终建立一个宽松、和解、共处的社会。即以积极的态度对待各种社会矛盾,希望通过话语分析提倡和创建一个和谐的社会
Chapter 10 社会语言学
1. speech community (言语社团) Speech community refers to a group of people who interact by means of speech.
2. variety ( (语言)变体) Variety refers to a set of linguistic items with similar social distribution.
3. accent and dialect (口音和方言) Accent refers to the cumulative auditory effect of those features of a person’s pronunciation which identify where he is from, regionally or socially. Dialect is a regionally or socially distinctive variety of a language, identified by a particular set of words and grammatical structures.
4. regional dialects (地区方言) Distinctive varieties of language between different places are referred to as regional dialects.
5. social dialects (社会方言) Social dialect refers to a linguistic variety defined on social grounds.
6. idiolect (个人习语) Idiolect refers to the linguistic system of an individual speaker.
7. register (语域) Register refers to a variety of language defined according to its use in social situations.
8. code-switching (语码切换) Code-switching refers to the concurrent use of more than one language, or language variety, in conversation
9. code-mixing (语码混用) Code-mixing refers to the mixing of two or more languages or language varieties in speech.
10. bilingualism (双语现象) Bilingualism refers to a speaker’s competence in two languages and their use in everyday communication.
11. diglossia (双言现象) Diglossia refers to the existence of two functionally different languages within a society.
12. lingua francas (混合语) Lingua francas refers to an auxiliary language which is used to enable routine communication to take place between groups of people who speak different native languages or different language varieties.
13. pidgins (洋泾浜语) Pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common.
14. Creoles (克里奥尔语) Creole is defined as a pidgin that has become the first language of a new generation of speakers.
1． What’s the relationship between language and society?
5) Social structure may either influence or determine linguistic structure and/or behavior.
6) Linguistic structure and/or behavior may either influence or determine social structure.
7) The influence is bi-directional: language and society may influence each other.
8) There is on relationship at all between linguistic structure and social structure and that each is independent of the other.
8. What are the differences between sociallinguistics and sociology of language?
1) Sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationships between language and society with the goal being a better understanding of the structure of language and of how languages function in communication.
2) The equivalent goal in the sociology of language is trying to discover how social structure can be better understood through the study of language.
In a word, the former is the study of language in relation to society while the latter is the study of society in relation to languagee.
9. How does age influence language?
1) The first influence caused by age can be observed in the process of children’s language developing into adult language.
2) There are some differences in pronunciation correlate with different generations of speakers.
3) There is also lexical variation according to the age correlate with time periods.
10. How does gender influence language?
1) Phonological differences between the speech of men and that of woman have been found in various language.
2) Sex differences are also reported in the area of morphology and vocabulary.
3) Sex differences in word choice are also found in various language.
4) There are different intonation patterns between men and women.
11. Explain the scales of formality and styles of speaking.
I. One of the most analyzed areas where the use of language is determined by the situation is the scale of formality. There are five degrees of formality:
1) Frozen.
2) Formal.
3) Informal.
4) Casual.
5) Intimate.
II. Under different cirumstances, speaker may choose different style to speak, that is style of speaking. The style includes speaker’s voice, the vocabulary they use and the physical actions they employ while speaking, not only expresses their identity but also serves to emphasize the content of an utterance.
Chapter 11 心理语言学
1. language comprehension (语言理解) Language comprehension refers to the way in which speech comes to thoughts.
2. language production (语言产出) Language production is a process of conversion from thoughts to speech.
3. critical period hypothesis (关键期假说) Critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language.
4. mother tongue interference (母语干扰) Mother tongue interference means the learner’s first language knowledge would interfere with the second language because differences existed between the first language and the second language.
5. instrumental motivation (工具性学习动机) Instrumental motivation refers to a wish by a learner who treat the acquisition of a second language only as a means to achieve certain aims.
6. integrative motivation (介入性学习动机) Integrative motivation refers to a wish by a learner who wish to acquire a second language due to his interest in the native people and culture relative to that language, and hope to achieve the purpose of interacting with the people and even merging into their social culture.
7. acculturation (语言文化移入) Acculturation is the process of adapting to the new culture of the second language community during the second language learning.
8. personality (个性) Personality refers to patterns of relatively enduring characteristics of behavior and the psychological classification of different types of individuals.
9. interlanguage (中介语) Interlanguage refers to a language system produced by an individual learner of a language which has features of the language which they are learning and also of their first language.
10. first language acquisition (第一语言习得) First language acquisition is the study of the processes through which humans acquire their native language
11. field dependence (场依存) 个体较多地依赖自己所处的周围环境作为外在参照，以环境的刺激在交往中定义知识、信息被称作场依存。
12. field independence (场独立) 在信息加工中对内在参照有较大的依赖倾向，善于进行知觉分析，把所观察到的因素同背景区分开来，知觉较稳定，不易受背景的变化而变化。
1. What’s the relationship between learning and acquisition?
1) Acquisition refers to the gradual subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
2) Learning is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school setting.
3) Children acquire their native language without explicit learning while a second language is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired.
2. What are the main language acquisition theories?
1) Tabula rasa(白板) hypothesis. People who hold this view claim that children acquire their first language through a chain of “stimulus-response-imitation-reinforcement”.
2) Innateness(天赋) hypothesis. People who hold this view believe that human babies are somewhat predisposed to acquire a language.
3. Make some comments on Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language.
4. What are the individual learner factors affecting SLA?
The individual learner factors affecting SLA usually involve age, aptitude, motivation, personality and cognitive style.
5. What’s the biological basis of language?
1) The human brain.
2) Language centers.
6. Give examples to explain the statement: language transfer can be positive or negative.
1) When the relevant unit or structure of both languages is the same, linguistic interference can result in correct language production called positive transfer. An example is the use of cognates.
2) Negative transfer means learner’s first language knowledge would interfere with the second language because differences existed between the first language and the second language. For example, Chinese learner’s frequent error like “Although…but…”
7. Make some comments on EA(错误分析)and CA(对比分析).
1) Error analysis is the study of kind and quantity of error that occurs by the second language learner.
2) Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities.
8. What do you think may cause the age differences in SLA between children and adults?
The differences caused because that adult learners have passed their critical age for a second language, particularly in phonology.
9. Write a short essay to illustrate the main issues second language acquisition is concerned with.
1) Language transfer and interference.
2) Interlanguage.
3) Communicative competence.
10. What is error analysis? What attitude should a foreign language teacher take? Why?
Chapter 12 语言学理论与外语教学
1. applied linguistics (应用语言学) refers to the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching.
2. traditional grammars (传统语法) is a grammar which is usually based on earlier grammars of Latin or Greek and applied to other languages.
3. grammar translation method (语法翻译法) is a foreign language teaching method derived from the traditional method of teaching Greek and Latin.
4. audio-lingual method (听说法) is a method of language teaching that emphasizes on structures in language and the believes that the learning is a process of habit formation.
5. behaviourism (行为主义) is an approach of psychology which states that human and animal behaviour can and should be studied in terms of psychological process only.
6. positive reinforcement (正面强化) refers to reinforcement which increases the likelihood of a response.
7. negative reinforcement (负面强化) refers to reinforcement which decreases the likelihood of a response.
8. communicative language teaching (交际语言教学) is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language.
1. Make some comments on cognitive code approach(认知代码法).
Cognitive code approach is an approach to second language teaching which is based on the belief that language learning is a process which involves active mental processes and not simply the forming of habit.
2. What’s the relationship between behaviourism and cognitive psychology(认知心理学)?
In contrast to behaviourism, cognitive psychology is concerned with the way in which the human mind thinks and learns.
1) Cognitive psychology emphasizes the study of knowledge, rather than behaviour.
2) It emphasizes mental structure or organization.
3) It vies the individual as being active and constructive, rather than the passive recipient of environmental stimulation.
3. What are the implications of second language acquisition theory to FLT?
1) The requirement that input should be comprehensible has several interesting implications for classroom practice.
2) The affective filter hypothesis together with the hypothesis imples that effective classroom input must be interesting.
3) The theory of SLA gives language teachers an implication that the focus in the classroom should be on listening and reading rather than on speaking.
4. Say something about the influences which theories of psychology have on FLT.
1) In a cognitive approach, the learner is actively involved in constructing meaning. It is important for teachers to help and encourage learners in this process rather than seeing them as passive receivers of the language.
2) In learning a new language, learners can be guided to make full use of their existing knowledge.
3) The notions of assimilation and accommodation also have implications for learning a new language.
5. What do you know about traditional grammar? Is grammar-translation method out of date now?
传统语法强调语言的正确与纯正，重视书面语、文学作品的语言，使用拉丁语的规定模式。传统语法的另一特点是以规则为纲，它讲各类词怎样变化、各类句子怎样解剖，不深究句子的真正含义，少讲怎样把适当的词组成结构和句子。
语法翻译法有一些弊病：重书面、轻口语；学习者容易丧失外语学习的积极性。但语法翻译法仍有其存在的必要：
首先，语法翻译法有利于学习者充分认识两种语言间的基本特征，形成扎实的语言文字功底
其次，语法翻译法有利于培养学习者良好的学习习惯并形成稳固的自学能力。
再次，语法翻译法对教师的英语能力要求不高，易于操作。
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of communicative language teaching?
Chapter 13
1. innateness theory (先天主义理论) Innateness theory was put forwardd by Chomsky, which means that human knowledge develops from structures, processes and ideas that are in the mind at birth rather than from the environment.
2. The Prague School (布拉格学派) The Prague School refers to a branch of European Structuralism arising from the Prague Linguistic Circle, which was founded in 1926 by V. Mathesius and others. 强调共时、系统性、语言功能
3. The Copenhagen School (哥本哈根学派) The Copenhagen School refers to a school of European Structuralism arising from the linguistic Circle of Copenhagen, which was found by Hjelmslev and others.
4. The American Structuralism (美国结构主义) The American Structuralism refers to various branches of structuralism pioneered by American linguist L.Bloomfield. 注重描写语言研究结构
5. TG grammar (转换生成语法) TG grammar was put forward in the late 1950s by Chomsky. 他认为仅仅描写语法形式是不够的，而要探索隐藏在语法行为背后的人类普遍的“语法能力”，这种语言能力通过一套“深层结构”向“表层结构”的转换规则，从而把意义和形式结合起来，把静态描写提高到动态描写。
6. The London School (伦敦学派) The London School refers to the kind of linguistic scholarship in England, which was mainly established by Malinoski. 强调语言环境和语音系统重要性
1. What do you know about signifier and signified, the sound image and the concept?
1) Signifier covers the form of a linguistic sign, which is realized phonetically of graphemically.
2) Signified covers its content, which is a conceptual sign.
2. What is the contribution the Prague school to linguistics?
The contributions the Prague School has made to the development of linguistics from three aspects:
1) The distinctive feature theory formalized by Jakobson.
2) The nine phonologyical oppositions identifyied by Trubetzkoy.
3) The functional sentence perspective (FSP) and communicative dynamism (CD), first advanced by Mathesius.
3. What is the essence of FSP (句法功能观) and CD (交际动力)?
1) FSP describes how information is distributed in sentences. The major principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.
2) CD is designed to measure the amount of information a linguistic item carries in a sentence.
4. What is American structuralism?
American structuralism is a general term for various branches of structuralism pioneered above all by E.Sapir and L. Bloomfield.
5. What are the characteristics of Transformational-Generative Grammar?
1) Chomisky defines language as a set of rules or principles.
2) Chomsky believes that the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar that captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language.
3) Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker’s tacit knowledge.
4) Chomsky follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.
6. What do you know about Halliday’s Systemic-Functional Grammar(系统功能语法)?
指当代结构主义语言学中重视从社会角度研究语言,以揭示语言所起的作用和反映各种语言形式如何体现社会功能的语法理论。包含两个组成部分：
1. 系统语法 (Systemic Grammar), 用来解释语言的内在联系
2. 功能语法 (Functional Grammar), 用来说明语言是社会交往的手段
7. What do you know about the metafuncitons(元功能) of language?
Metafuncitons of language means that language is what it is just because it has to serve certain function. That is to say, sociall requirements on language have served to establish its structure.
Halliday提出元语言功能理论, 即人际功能（interpersonal function）、经验功能（experiential function）、语篇功能（textual function）。人际功能体现社会关系。经验功能指的是人们用语言来谈论他们对世界的经验（包括内心世界），用语言来描述周围所发生的事件或情形。语篇功能使语境内容相关联。
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