Phonetics: the study of speech sounds, which is part of phonology and provides the means for describing speech sounds, and it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received.
Phonology is concerned with the linguistic knowledge of speech and the ways in which these speech sounds form systems and patterns in human language.
Consonants: produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.
Vowels: produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.
Apart from complementary distribution, a phoneme may sometimes have free variants （自由变体）.
Phonological process: a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts
Assimilation: is often used synonymously with coarticulation.
If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation(先期协同发音).
If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation（后滞协同发音）, as is the case of map.
suprasegmental features超音段特征: the aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.
Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.
Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.
Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components – morphemes.
Morpheme is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.
E.g. inter-nation-al-ism, friendly
An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem).
E.g. para-lingual, pseudo-nym, real-ize, books etc.
A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
E.g. friends, friendships, girlfriends etc.
Inflectional affixes: only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem and do not change the word class of the word they attach to. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final.
Compound: it refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.
Syntax is the study of how sentences are structured or how words are combined with others
to form sentences and in what order.
The syntactic rules in a grammar must at least account for:
• the grammaticality of sentences
• word order
• structural ambiguity
• grammatical relations
• whether different structures have differing meanings or the same meaning
• the creative aspect of language
Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.
It is easier to see the parts and subparts of the sentence in a tree diagram.
Semantics Semantics is generally considered to be the studyof meaning in language.
Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units,words and sentences in particular.
Connotative meaning: what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.
Thematic meaning: what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.
There are some difficulties in the approach to analyze the meaning of a word in terms of semantic components：One difficulty is that many words are polysemous. They have more than one meaning; consequently they will have different sets of semantic components
Secondly, some semantic components are seen as binary taxonomies.
Thirdly, the examples we have seen are only concerned with the neatly organized parts of the vocabulary. There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain.
Meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts.
Reference: how language refers to this external world.
Sense: the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their language
Synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation in meaning.
Hyponymy is a matter of class membership. The upper term in this sense relation, i.e. the class name, is called superordinate (上义词), and the lower terms, the members, hyponyms（下义词).
The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined is usually known as the principle of compositionality(组合性原则).
Idioms: cannot be built up as the sum of its parts. Idioms are phrases derived by metaphor and other types of semantic extension.
Entailment 蕴含Sometimes knowing the truth of one sentence entails or necessarily implies the truth of another sentence.
Contradiction is negative entailment, that is, where the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.
presupposition 预设In the branch of linguistics known as pragmatics, a presupposition (or ps) is an implicit assumption about the world or background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in discourse.
⏹ Semantic meaning:
⏹ the more constant, inherent side of meaning
⏹ Pragmatic meaning:
⏹ the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context
A locutionary act以言指事 is the act of saying something; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
An illocutionary act以言行事 is the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.
A perlocutionary act 以言成事is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.
The difference between vowels and consonants : In order to produce consonants you have to set up an obstalce course inside your mouth to block the airstream.
Vowels are made with more or less open mouth and without blocking the airstream
In all languages there are vowels and consonants. Consonants are created through pulmonic utterance that is created by stopped or obstructed air flow through the mouth. Vowels are created through unobstructed air flow through the mouth. (Lynden Rodriguez)
Conversational implicature: as a type of implied meaning
deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context under the guidance of the CP and its maxims
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