定义 1.语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
2.语言Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征 Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness 任意性 Productivity 多产性 Duality 双重性 Displacement 移位性 Cultural transmission 文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.
5.语言能力Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.
6.语言运用Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
7.历时语言学 Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
8.共时语言学 Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time.
9.语言 langue The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.
10.言语 parole The realization of langue in actual use.
11.规定性 Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.
12.描述性 Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.三、问答题 1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study? Phonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall. Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction. Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words. Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society. Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.
2.why do we say language is arbitrary? Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it’s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the ‘arbitrariness’ of language is ‘a rose by any other name would smell as sweet’.
6.the distinction between langue and parole? ⑴langue is abstract, relatively stable ⑵parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation.
1/ What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？ Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.
2/ The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴 The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学) The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音 系学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形 态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法 学） The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学） The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心 理语言学） The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学） computational linguistics. and （计算机语言学）
3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的几对基本概念
Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.
Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时 The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.
Langue and parole 语言和言语 The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用 Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.
7.同义词 Synonymy It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms1
2.上下义关系 Hyponymy It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.
13.反义词 Antonymy It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension. 分类 (1)Gradable antonyms 分级反义词(a matter of degree) 例子 Old—middle-aged—young; hot-warm-cold Antonym (2) Complementary antonyms 互补反义词 a matter of degree between 分类 two extremes 例子 Alive—dead; male—female; (3) Relational opposites 关系反义词(中间可以加成分，如上、中、下) father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below
2.言语行为理论 Speech act theory It’s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it’s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?” The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.
3.叙述句 Constatives Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.;
4.行为句 Performatives Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
5.言内行为 Locutionary Act A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. it’s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
6.言外行为 Illcotionary Act An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention it’s the act performed in saying something.
7.言后行为 Perlocutionary Act Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. it’s the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance.
10.合作原则 Cooperative Principle It’s proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.
11.会话含义 Conversational implicatures According to P.Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in th utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP. 话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意
言内行为、言外行为和言后行为 例子：you have left the door wide open. Locutionary act:: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean. Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door. Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed
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